청질서의 성립과 조청관계의 안정화: 1644∼1700

Abstract

The “Ch"ing Order”, a new international order in East Asia established by the Ch"ing occupation of Peking in 1644, was different from the unitary and customary order made by the Ming Dynasty. The old order ensured uniform distinctions between the Han people and non-Han people and between in and outside mainland China through linking the policy of removing the embargo to the tribute formalities. However, the Ch"ing Dynasty built a dual foreign relation system and applied different principles to the southeastern waters and the northwestern inner Asia region, which had been under the Ming order. Since the Ch"ing order was completely different from the Ming Order, the Chosŏn-Ch"ing relations was not a simple replacement of the previous Chosŏn-Ming relations. The Chosŏn-Ming relations was formed and maintained through the exchange of voluntary and peaceful tribute, which was based on the Sadaejaso (事大字小) idea, an important part of Neo-Confucian order. In contrast, the Chosŏn-Ch"ing relations represented a forced sovereign and subject structure formed by two wars (Chŏngmyo-horan in 1627 and Pyŏngcha-horan in 1636) caused by the Ch"ing. Therefore, from the beginning Chosŏn did not have the Sadaejaso idea towards the Ch"ing in spite of the formal sovereign and subject relations between them. In fact, the relations were complicated by mutual suspicion, check, coercion, and revengeful thoughts. However, soon after the Ch"ing occupation of Peking in 1644, it successfully replaced the Ming and strengthened it domination of China. As a result, its coercive policies against Chosŏn were gradually alleviated, and Chosŏn had no choice but to admit the Ch"ing’s power and status. In this respect, the Chosŏn-Ch"ing relations reflected the unique nature of relations formed by the military conquest in terms of content although it also inherited the exemplary relations between Chosŏn and Ming to a certain extent. Thus, the Ch"ing partially applied the principle of excluding the Han people, which was applied to the northwestern inner Asia region, to Chosŏn unlike other states that had been under the Ming Order. The latter part of the 17th century can be characterized as a transition period, which witnessed the settlement of the unique Chosŏn-Ch"ing relations. The distrust and confrontation before the Ch"ing occupation of Peking in 1644 had been transformed to the stability and peace of the 18th century. The stabilization of the relations between the two countries was reflected in trade. The trade led by yeokgwan (official translators) and sasang (private businessmen) became active. On the basis of the relations, the two countries were able to contribute to the stability and peace in East Asia in the late 17th century, which lasted until the mid-19th century.