Названия растений в Словаре Академии Российской (1789–1794): источники и принципы лексикографирования

The article is an attempt to answer the question: is it justified to include in the academic dictionaries’ lexical units of substandard vocabulary — elements of colloquial speech, vernacular, jargon, slang, etc.? The article discusses whether it is justified to include in the academic dictionaries’ lexical units of substandard vocabulary — units of colloquial speech, vernacular, jargon, slang, etc. At different times, the authors of academic dictionaries were reproached (and are reproached today) for excessive democracy: according to critics, the normative dictionary should reflect strictly standard norm, the description of the substandard vocabulary in the normative dictionary is unacceptable. The problem mentioned above is studied on the material of two dictionaries — the Academic Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language and the Academic Russian Orthographic Dictionary. The first part of the article is devoted to the description of representation of units of non-codified subsystems of the Russian language in Academic Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, the second part of the article deals with problems connected to the presentation of reduced words in the orthographic dictionary. The author refutes the thesis about the inadmissibility of including units of substandard lexis in the academic standard dictionary. The author comes to the conclusio that reflection of elements of non-codified subsystems in the normative dictionary does not lower the quality of the dictionary, but, on the contrary, it is necessary for the description of the standard language.

The article presents the result of the procedure for resolving the issue of forming dictionary vocables, as well as organizing a dictionary entry in the dictionary of the language of the Yakut heroic epic Olonkho, proclaimed by UNESCO in 2005 as a masterpiece of the oral and intangible cultural heritage of humanity. The question was one of the rather complex problems in the theoretical development of a dictionary of the Olonkho language. The high degree of formulaicity of the language of the Yakut epic, the originality of the stylistics of the epic narrative and the characteristic features of the language of the Turkic peoples generated a complex of original properties of the Olonkho language, which determined the problematic character of lexicographic works. However, when developing the macro- and microstructure of dictionaries of the language of folklore, an unconventional solution to the problem is allowed, and therefore the work proposes a special structure of a dictionary entry, as well as methods for forming non-standard forms of dictionary vocables. To achieve the goal, we analyzed the functional and semantic features of the lexeme aghys ʻeightʼ in the olonkho text Nurgun Bootur the Swift by K. G. Orosin (1947). As a result of the analysis, the following points were clarified and determined: 1. it was decided to present stable verbal complexes of the Olonkho language (i. e. epic formulas, formulaic constructions, constructions of a formulaic nature), phraseological units, single lexemes and epic periods as vocabulary vocables. The main factors that served as support for making such a decision were the distinctive feature of the Turkic languages – the law of synharmonism, as well as the diffuse nature of the meaning of folk expressions, which requires an integrated approach to the compilation of dictionary definitions, including in the design of the lemma part of the dictionary. The basic principles of the structure of dictionary entries in the Olonkho language dictionary are indicated: the order of presentation of units of lexicographic description, the order of presentation of stable verbal complexes, principles of presentation of material, features of presentation of illustrative material. In developing the described principles, we relied on individual aspects of the theoretical positions expressed in the works of our predecessors, specializing in the field of Russian lingua-folkloristics, Russian folklore lexicography, in Turkic studies, as well as the result of a comprehensive analysis of materials from the K. G. Orosin’s olonkho text of Nurgun Bootur the Swift. In the course of further lexicographical work, it will obviously be possible to make minor adjustments, since the language material of the Yakut epic is extremely diverse. However, the result obtained in this article, in this aspect, will definitely form the basis of lexicography.

BackgroundFolk names of plants are the root of traditional plant biodiversity knowledge. In pace with social change and economic development, Mongolian knowledge concerning plant diversity is gradually vanishing. Collection and analysis of Mongolian folk names of plants is extremely important. During 2008 to 2012, the authors have been to the Arhorchin National Nature Reserve area 5 times. Fieldwork was done in 13 villages, with 56 local Mongol herdsmen being interviewed. This report documents plant folk names, analyzes the relationship between folk names and scientific names, looks at the structure and special characteristics of folk names, plant use information, and comparative analysis were also improved.MethodsEthnobotanical interviewing methods of free-listing and open-ended questionnaires were used. Ethnobotanical interview and voucher specimen collection were carried out in two ways as local plant specimens were collected beforehand and then used in interviews, and local Mongol herdsmen were invited to the field and interviewed while collecting voucher specimens. Mongolian oral language was used as the working language and findings were originally recorded in Mongolian written language. Scientific names of plants are defined through collection and identification of voucher specimens by the methods of plant taxonomy.ResultsA total of 146 folk names of local plants are recorded. Plant folk names corresponded with 111 species, 1 subspecies, 7 varieties, 1 form, which belong to 42 families and 88 genera. The correspondence between plant folk names and scientific names may be classified as one to one correspondence, two or three to one correspondence, and one to multitude correspondence. The structure of folk names were classified as primary names, secondary names and borrowed names. There were 12 folk names that contain animal names and they have correspondence with 15 species. There are nine folk names that contain usage information and they have correspondence with 10 species in which five species and one variety of plant are still used by the local people. The results of comparative analysis on the Mongol herdsmen in the Arhorchin National Nature Reserve and the Mongolians in the Ejina desert area shows that there are some similarities, as well as many differences whether in language or in the structure.ConclusionIn the corresponding rate between plant folk names and scientific names yielded a computational correspondence of 82.19%, which can be considered as a high level of consistency between scientific knowledge and traditional knowledge in botanical nomenclature. Primary names have most cultural significance in the plant folk names. Special characteristic of plant folk names were focused on the physical characteristics of animals which were closely related to their traditional animal husbandry and environment. Plant folk names are not only a code to distinguish between different plant species, but also a kind of culture rich in a deep knowledge concerning nature. The results of comparative analysis shows that Mongolian culture in terms of plant nomenclature have characteristics of diversity between the different regions and different tribes.

Our paper aims to reveal an inventory, an interpretation and a statistical analysis of Romanian names of plants which implicates the term Crăciun (Christmas), spread through the botanical terminology, a phenomenon which, as considered by E. Coşeriu is not enough highlighted (given that the individual speaker became creator of language / poetry whenever he named a flower. Botanical popular terminology has primarily a practical value, designating, distinguishing and categorizing elements of the plant kingdom within the given natural reign, but also has a high theoretical significance, especially for linguists, both by the ethimons to which they send back and by the metaphorical meanings the phytonims mostly have.

In the folkloric creations of the Romanians the wind has deep mythological implications. Our paper aims to reveal an inventory, an interpretation and a statistical analysis of Romanian names of plants which implicates the word „wind”, spread through the botanical terminology, a phenomenon which, as considered by E. Coşeriu is not enough highlighted (given that the individual speaker became creator of language / poetry whenever he named a flower. Botanical popular terminology has primarily a practical value, designating, distinguishing and categorizing elements of the plant kingdom within the given natural reign, but also has a high theoretical significance, especially for linguists, both by the ethimons to which they send back and by the metaphorical meanings the phytonims mostly have.

The papers featured in Issue 2/2021 of the Journal deal with major topics in the theory and practice of lexicography – both in a contemporary and historical perspective. The authors address problems of onomastic lexicography, neography, explanatory lexicography and the history of Bulgarian dictionary crafting. One of the papers sheds light on some aspects of the lexicographic practice in Poland. The issue is dedicated to one of the most eminent representatives of contemporary Bulgarian academic lexicography – Prof. DSc Maria Choroleeva – on the occasion of her forthcoming jubilee. Boris Parashkevov’s paper outlines a project for the creation of a dictionary of Bulgarian surnames. The concept of the dictionary envisages the organisation of family names in nests based on semantic equivalence (correspondence), associative reference and shared structural membership, thus making it possible to reveal the structural and semantic relations among the names under study. In addition, the dictionary entries document the derivational paradigm of the respective surnames, including short forms, diminutives and suffixal derivatives. Sia Kolkovska addresses some peculiarities in the lexicographic description of Bulgarian neologisms motivated by specific types of polysemy and synonymy. The author comments on the lexicographic description of the semantic structure of new polysemous loanwords and discusses the criteria for selecting a dominant synonym in synonym sets composed of neologisms. Diana Blagoeva and Sia Kolkovska’s paper also deals with issues in neography. The authors discuss the views on the categorial nature of neologisms of the type бизнесцентър/бизнес център (business centre) in Bulgarian and comment on the reasons for the emergence and establishment of this type of lexemes in the language, while considering the dynamics of their functioning. The paper motivates the necessity for the application of a special approach to the lexicographic description of this type of neologisms. Tsvetelina Georgieva comments on Nayden Gerov’s understanding of the so-called „равнознаменаменователни речи“ and highlights the contribution of the renowned lexicographer of the National Revival and the Post-liberation period to the representation of such names in an explanatory dictionary. The author maintains that these names should be considered not synonyms but heteroyms as they belong to different dialects. Nadezhda Kostova also takes a look at the history of Bulgarian lexicography in her discussion on the arrangement of dictionary entries in different types of dictionaries from the beginning of the 20th century. The author provides a comparative analysis of the peculiarities in the application of the alphabetical-nest arrangement in the lexicographic works under discussion. In his paper Petar Sotirov studies the application of the qualifier colloquially (potoczne) in Polish explanatory lexicography, taking as a point of departure the views on the notion of colloquialism in Polish linguistics. The author concludes that the dominant notion of colloquialism in Polish lexicography is the stylistic one and goes on to identify certain cases of inconsistencies and discrepancies in the use of the qualifier. Mihaela Kuzmova discusses the place of precedent phenomena (in par-ticular, the so-called “winged words”) in phraseology. The author proposes an analysis of several popular expressions of domestic precedent origin which have neither been described in lexicographic works, nor commented in the linguistic literature, and offers some observations on their phraseologisation and usualisation.

This article considers an important aspect of the history of the 16th century lexicography, namely the development of the practice of citing primary sources in the dictionary entry and, as a result, the significant increase in the accuracy of references. These innovations reflected the general trend in humanist philology to rely on primary sources when studying vocabulary: only words and meanings attested in the works of classical authors were eligible to be included into Greek or Latin dictionaries. For Greek lexicography, this task was fully accomplished by Henri Estienne in his “Thesaurus Graecae linguae” (1572). The article summarises the history of this dictionary and discusses some of Estienne’s critical statements concerning his predecessors’ lexicographical work, which followed the Greek-Latin vocabulary (1478) by Johannes Crastonus, and explaining the qualitative difference between his “Thesaurus” and traditional Greek-Latin lexica. Estienne paid special attention to these issues in the preface to his “Thesaurus” as well as in “Epistola … de suae typographiae statu” (1569). The practice of attribution and the search for primary sources were extremely important for Estienne’s project; in this regard, he followed the views on lexicography developed by his father R. Estienne during his work on the “Latinae linguae thesaurus” (1531, 1543). H. Estienne contrasted his dictionary, which was based on scrupulous reading of Greek literature and provided with regular references to primary sources and scientific works, to numerous Lexica full of mistakes and mutilated quotations, lacking reliable bibliography and, therefore, largely anonymous. His assessment, however, requires critical evaluation, as despite the undoubted advantages and novelty of Estienne’s opus magnum, his lexicographical views and the project of “Thesaurus” itself seem to reflect the trends present in humanist Greek lexicography since at least the second quarter of the 16th century. The lexicographic principles advocated by the author of “Thesaurus” had already been proclaimed and implemented (although by no means as consistently and thoroughly as by Estienne) by J. Toussain, C. Gessner, H. Junius as well as other authors who were however never called by name in Estienne’s critical assessment.

During the 18th century British encyclopaedias included in their lemmata an increasing number of botanical lexis, that is the terminology pertaining to “that branch of natural history which treats of the uses, characters, classes, orders, genera, and species of plants. […] and what useful and ornamental purposes may be expected from the cultivation of it [i.e. botany]” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1768-1771, s.v. Botany). More often than not, these terms represented migrating plants coming from exotic places, new geographical areas, whether eastwards or westwards. The general aim of this survey is to investigate the representation of the botanical science in 18th-century universal and specialized encyclopaedias, starting from prefaces and going on with the micro-texts of the single entries s.v. Botany. The starting point is thus theoretical botany. A further point in the analysis focuses on applied botany and discusses those plants such as Camellia Sinensis, Coffea Arabica, Theobroma Cacao, Saccharum Officinarum and Cinchona Officinalis which were mostly exploited for commercial and/or medical reasons. The individual entries include the most tiny details on the single headwords-topics and also display an acceptable plurality of beliefs, viewpoints and perspectives, focussing on botanical descriptions, historical information, socio-cultural issues, legal, political and commercial considerations.

Numerous medieval biblical dictionaries, especially those written in Judeo- Arabic, devote some attention to a phenomenon which occurs in the biblical corpus, whereby some Andalusi Hebrew roots experienced alterations in their triliteral structure because of the transposition or metathesis of weak and geminate letters. Depending on the method applied by a lexicographer, allomorphs can create either harmony or conflict in the dictionary. In the lexicographical works following early grammatical method preceding Ḥayyūj (10th century), allomorphs produce harmony, bringing together forms that share a minimum combination of radical letters around a single meaning that can produce concepts and be identified as a semantic foundation or lemma. Many of the lexicographical tools and principles used in this work became set in stone in Hebrew dictionaries that were composed between the 10th and 15th centuries. Ḥayyūj's work consisted in arabizing Hebrew morphology, giving it an analytical system similar to that of the Muslims. Keywords: Ḥayyūj; allomorphs; Andalusi Hebrew; biblical dictionaries; Judeo- Arabic; lexicographical works; Muslims; semantic foundation

Everyone eats food. From birth until death, food is one of the continuous threads that bind all humans together. Everyone needs food, and the majority of the food we eat comes directly from plants or from animals that predominately eat plant-based diets. That is to say, almost all food derives from plants grown on farms. Unfortunately, the average American is no longer intimately connected to agriculture. In the U.S., we have gone from more than 70% of the workforce working directly in agriculture in the 19th century to less than 2% now. As agricultural jobs have moved to other industries, populations have clustered more and more in urban environments, with 80% of the U.S. now living in urban centers. To put it simply, most people no longer live near agricultural production and just don't see it. But there is strong resurgent interest in food and agriculture driven primarily by the desire to eat healthfully and social concerns related to perceptions of agricultural production. In the country's urban centers, this has manifested in renewed interest in agricultural systems, with particular emphasis on farm-to-table restaurants and urban farming examples including rooftop and hydroponic agriculture. While it is unlikely that urban-based agricultural systems will replace the extensive system of agriculture we have in place anytime soon, this urban interest in food and agriculture nonetheless represents an opportunity to reverse the decades of waning visibility of the agricultural system to the end consumer (i.e., eaters). What are desperately needed are urban nodes of science-based education that can harness urban interest in agriculture and provide accurate information about the food system to an interested public. Botanical and public gardens, which are present in virtually every urban center and enjoy more than 70 million visitors per year, represent a tremendous opportunity for making the connection between the public and agriculture. A recent article in Nature Plants (Miller et al., 2015) argues specifically that botanical gardens represent an already existing and massive infrastructure that is well positioned to play a leading role in bringing agriculture into urban centers. Many botanical gardens have the ability to perform plant research, offer formal and information education, provide interpretation of plant uses, and showcase the beauty of plants. Furthermore, botanical gardens are experts at presenting scientifically based information about plants as exciting narratives in places of stunning beauty. With this possibility in mind, the U.S. Botanic Garden has joined with the ASA, CSSA, and SSSA to imagine what agricultural offerings at botanical gardens may look like. In July of 2014, a group of more than 30 scientists from the Societies met in Washington, DC, with botanical garden educators and leaders from a number of prominent gardens to begin charting a course forward. This meeting informed the current U.S. Botanic Garden exhibit Exposed: The Secret Life of Roots, which presents plants of the American tallgrass prairie, including associated agronomic species. More than 700,000 people will view this exhibit before it closes in October, providing an important opportunity for urban populations to experience the agricultural ecosystems and crops that support a large portion of our agricultural system. Furthermore, the U.S. Botanic Garden and Societies continue to work together to thresh out priorities for botanical gardens to further engage urban populations on agriculture. Leading gardens, including the New York Botanical Garden, Chicago Botanic Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden, and many others are already developing robust agricultural programs, often focused on urban agriculture. The U.S. Botanic Garden exhibit Exposed: The Secret Life of Roots presents plants of the American tallgrass prairie, including associated agronomic species. These botanical gardens have decades and even centuries of experience in relating to people about plants. The growing conversation about food is a great entry point to reconnecting people with plants and the agricultural systems that provide them. With a strong nexus to plant conservation and horticultural outreach, botanical and public gardens are viewed as trusted experts about plant-based topics. Given the sometimes polarizing debate about agricultural practices, trusted interlocutors such as botanical gardens must provide spaces where the public will be open to science-based agricultural information. Botanical gardens have many of the skills and experience necessary to engage the public in agricultural issues, but greater involvement from the agricultural community will be required to more fully represent the country's vast and diverse agricultural system through botanical garden displays and programs. The agricultural community has a tremendous opportunity to engage the public through these gardens. We encourage agricultural scientists and practitioners who are dedicated to a robust conversation about the future of food to reach out to local botanical and public gardens. With more than 500 gardens throughout every region of the country, the possibilities for constructive community engagement about agriculture, even in the urban centers far from most farm fields, is staggering. Given the enormity of the challenge of feeding our increasing populations in a changing climate, an informed public is necessary in order to achieve the societal buy-in necessary to generate the support the agricultural community needs to advance its goals of a sustainable future food system. Botanical gardens may represent the best path towards generating a more agriculturally literate and supportive public, capable of engaging as citizens in democratic decision-making affecting agriculture. All that is required is to continue strengthening relationships between gardens and the greater agricultural community. Such efforts are investments that will pay dividends by presenting an accurate depiction of our present and future agricultural systems to the many Americans living in urban environments who are hungry to understand the future of food.

The first dictionary of the Finnish language of greater importance was Ganander’s dictionary from 1787, which remained as a manuscript, and was only published facsimile between 1937 and 1940 (printed version 1997). The second great Finnish dictionary was compiled and published by Lönnrot between 1866 and 1880. The process of making and publishing dictionaries was important for the nationalistic movement in Finland in the 19th and 20th centuries. A dictionary of Finnish dialects was already started in the 19th century; a large archive of dialects was gathered by professionals, but also by what is known as crowdsourcing. For the contemporary Finnish language, three large descriptive and normative dictionaries can be identified. The first, Nykysuomen sanakirja, was published between 1951 and 1961. It was followed by Suomen kielen perussanakirja in the 1990s and Kielitoimiston sankirja at the beginning of the 21st century; both consisting of some 100 000 entries.

The article is devoted to the examination of one of the discussion problems of the science of the document: its formation in the conditions of the gradual development of various studies of the document. The purpose of the research: to show the common features and differences in the research of documents of official purpose and documents designed to preserve and disseminate knowledge; to justify the regularity of the emergence of a science that united all areas of document research – documentology. The research is aimed at developing the general theory of the document. The article should refute the widespread opinion that documentology arose only in the 90s of the 20th century, and contribute to the further development of the theory of documentology. The research methodology is based on historical and information-communication approaches, which allows characterizing a document of any purpose at the same time as a historical phenomenon and a product of information-communication activity. As a result of the study, the regularity of the emergence and unity of the science of the document – documentology, which has several directions of document research, that have formed into independent sciences, is substantiated. The results of the research will be used in educational and practical activities in the fields related to information and documentation. First of all, they will contribute to the definition and discussion of modern theoretical problems of documentology. In practical activities, the implementation of the results achieved by the general theory of the document, in particular the typology of the document, recommendations on the preservation and use of documents, will be promoted in various fields of document science. Consideration of the development of scientific knowledge about the document until the beginning of the 20th century, showed that the science of the document developed gradually in different directions. The most famous and generally recognized is the development of diplomatics, as a science that examines the oldest documents of a diplomatic and legal nature: letters, acts, etc., their texts and originals. Along with diplomatics and on its basis, the disciplines of historical sources studies began to develop: paleography, epigraphy, epistology, codicology, and others. Historical bibliography was one of the disciplines of sources studies. The further development of bibliography proved its independence, self-definition as the science of the book, which also had a synonymous name – bibliography or bibliology. The development of all these scientific disciplines and other knowledge related to practical activities, dedicated to the collection, preservation and use of documents, made it possible at the beginning emergence of a single science about documents – documentology – in the 20th century. Understanding its origins and formation is important for further development and justification of its content in the 21st century.

Kinesthesia, the internal sensation of movement, is most often assessed through sight, in relation to its external correlates – action and spatial position. This paper investigates a symptom of this tension in French: the discrepancy between dictionary definitions and written uses of the verb blottir or the adjectival participle blotti. On the one hand, from Furetière (1690) to the online Grand Robert, lexicographers restrict their definitions to an external action that makes the ‘blotti’ object less voluminous and/or less visible. On the other hand, from as early as 1844, authors have used this lexical field to refer to intimate interaction with the environment. A search of the Frantext database reveals that for the last century and a half, dictionary entries have lacked a meaning such as: [to seek bodily contact with something or someone in order to achieve physical and/or emotional well- being]. Today, this meaning accounts for almost half of all occurrences. The study thus points to a twofold omission in the work of lexicographers: the late and partial consideration of the ‘subjective interaction with people or objects’ component in favour of exteriority alone, and the complete neglect of the tactile-kinesthetic implications of movement in favour of spatial position alone.

El objetivo principal del trabajo es la localización de voces vascongadas en la producción lexicográfica española de los siglos XVI-XVII, y para ello nos hemos valido de aquellos primeros datos y hemos obtenido como resultado un léxico marcado y circunscrito geográficamente a esta región en tres diccionarios monolingües del español, los tres grandes repertorios léxicos, de naturaleza etimológica, previos al corpus académico. La técnica de marcación diatópica dentro del artículo lexicográfico se presenta a modo de enunciados especiales, informaciones, si acaso, de tipo secundario, pero no por ello de menor interés. No en vano, con este tipo de información se sustenta toda la investigación que aquí se presenta. Los trabajos de selección de léxico histórico regional en diccionarios claramente nos facilitan ver cómo ha sido el proceso de marcación diatópica en nuestra tradición lexicográfica. Dichos trabajos se fundamentan, especialmente, en los diccionarios académicos o en aquellas obras que se reconocen como hitos en la tradición. Asimismo, se hace uso del soporte informático en orden al método sistemático y especifico de marcación y representación, mediante el sistema arbóreo de exhibición de información de los materiales.

Upon dealing with Russian religious choral music of the 18th century, one may clearly recognize the outlines of a unique genre, the duhovny kontsert, or in other words, the genre of the religious choral concerto. The subject is suppletory, since very few people in Hungary have dealt with pre-19th century Russian music, let alone with choral repertoire. In the present study, we may follow up the legalization and development of polyphony in church music – which was strictly monophonic up until the 1500s – and the different types of multivocal hymns. We will also get to know the Russian composers of the 17th and 18th centuries, who contributed to the genre with their own works. We will receive a detailed description about concertante techniques used in European vocal music, and about their appearance in the 18th century Russia, which was unique to a cappella choral concerto. We will also get to know more about the structure and characteristics of the duhovny kontsert, while taking a glance at the historical background. In the final part of the study, we will see how the genre influenced subsequent eras, and how the stylistic marks and techniques appear in the choral oeuvre of Rachmaninoff.