Zealand Marine Research Articles

Scale‐sensitive marine law and policy design: Towards ecosystem‐based management across spatial and temporal scales

AbstractEcosystem‐based management (EBM) is promoted in scholarly literature and international policy as a way to improve marine ecosystem outcomes, through the integration of marine law and policies across sectors, communities, and scales. A legal and policy framework that supports EBM at appropriate temporal and spatial scales is fundamental to the successful deployment of EBM. However, marine management is typically fragmented and misaligned, with a range of laws, policies, governance institutions, and sectoral frameworks applying to different marine spaces and working on varying timescales. In this focus article, we draw on our comprehensive study of Aotearoa New Zealand's marine law and policy to analyze the challenges scale mismatches present for marine law and policy implementation, focusing on key policy areas across fisheries, environment, conservation, and Indigenous rights and interests. We identify key opportunities to better align marine law and policy to ecosystem scale dynamics, revealing critical lessons for the imperative of scale‐sensitive marine law and policy design, globally.This article is categorized under: Policy and Economics > Research and Development Policy and Economics > Governance and Regulation Climate and Environment > Ecosystem Services

Editorial: Marine Biotechnology and Bioproducts session of the 13th Asia-Pacific Marine Biotechnology Conference (13th APMBC) and 5th Australia New Zealand Marine Biotechnology Society Conference (5th ANZMBS)

Editorial: Marine Biotechnology and Bioproducts session of the 13th Asia-Pacific Marine Biotechnology Conference (13th APMBC) and 5th Australia New Zealand Marine Biotechnology Society Conference (5th ANZMBS)

Variability of Fine‐Scale Chlorophyll Fronts in the Tīkapa Moana Te Moananui ā Toi Hauraki Gulf, Aotearoa New Zealand

AbstractAotearoa New Zealand's marine environment is heavily impacted by El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Little is known about the effect of ENSO on oceanographic properties in the area or their consequences on the distribution of marine organisms. Here we characterize the spatio‐temporal variability of fine‐scale fronts (<10 km) in the area of the Tīkapa Moana Te Moananui ā Toi Hauraki Gulf (HG) and investigate how it is impacted by dominant wind direction, seasonality, and ENSO phase. We processed satellite Ocean‐Land Color Instrument images from 2016 to 2022 with a fit‐for‐purpose version of the Belkin and O'Reilly frontal detection algorithm. We find coherent shifts in the position of fine‐scale features depending on the ENSO phase, with El Niño isolating the gulf sub‐regions and La Niña connecting them together. Overall, fronts tend to co‐locate with the 70 and 40 m isobaths in the outer and inner HG respectively, and their locations shift close or away from shore in response to changes in dominant wind direction. Furthermore, offshore frontal occurrences increase during winter and spring, and nearshore ones increase during summer and autumn. Our results sketch a first assessment of the distribution of fine‐scale features in a biologically important yet understudied region.

Database for marine and coastal restoration projects in Australia and New Zealand

SummaryThe United Nations has declared 2021–2030 as the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. These declarations emphasise the importance of restoring degraded marine and coastal ecosystems and supporting research and knowledge. The number and scale of marine and coastal restoration projects have been increasing in Australia and New Zealand over the past 40 years. However, the lack of a central repository of projects and their results limits opportunities to share knowledge to improve effectiveness. To address this gap, we developed the Australian and New Zealand Marine and Coastal Restoration Database. Information for this database was gathered from publicly available documents (peer‐reviewed journal articles and technical reports) and discussions with key organisations that lead projects in Australia and New Zealand. For each project, we recorded the start date, duration, spatial scale, location, details on monitoring, and success criteria. The database includes information up until 1 June 2020. It is available online via the Australian Coastal Restoration Network website.

Serological and molecular typing of Tenacibaculum maritimum from New Zealand farmed salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

Tenacibaculum maritimum is a cosmopolitan bacterial pathogen with the potential to cause significant losses in a broad range of farmed and wild marine fish species. This study investigated the antigenic diversity of T. maritimum isolated in culture from farmed Chinook (king) salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) from the Marlborough Sounds in New Zealand. A total of 36 isolates were examined using antibody serotyping and rapid molecular serotyping via multiplex PCR (mPCR) targeting genes encoding O-antigen biosynthesis enzymes. Serological analysis using three different polyclonal antisera developed against T. maritimum isolated from farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Tasmania, Australia revealed that there are three putative serotypes of T. maritimum that occur in New Zealand. The predominant serotype was defined by a positive reaction to all three Tasmanian antisera (antisera A, B and C), designated as serotype ABC. This serotype was found at all nine farm locations tested and represented 81% of all isolates examined. The same library of isolates was evaluated by mPCR serotyping and found three O-AGC types among tested isolates. O-AGC Type 3 was not only the predominant type (72%) present, but it also had a wide distribution, having been isolated at eight of the nine farms. Two other O-AGC types (O-AGC Type 2–1 and O-AGC Type 3–2) were identified, providing evidence of genetic variation. However, there was only partial concordance between the two serotyping techniques, which is likely linked to differences in the way serotypes are defined in the two approaches that were used. Nevertheless, in broad terms there is good evidence of intraspecific antigenic variation within our library of isolates, and collectively these data will be of crucial importance for assessing the pathogenicity of the isolates and the subsequent development of a vaccine for this emerging disease in New Zealand marine salmon farms.

A seafloor bioregionalisation for New Zealand

Marine habitats and ecosystems are under increasing pressure from human activities. Well-designed Marine Protected Area (MPA) networks can be highly effective tools for conserving biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions and services. Adequate coverage of biogeographic regions – i.e., large regions that represent broad-scale biodiversity patterns that are relatively homogeneous (stable over space and time) with distinct environmental conditions and biological contents – in a MPA network is seen as key to ensure that protected areas are representative. Building on a recent spatial classification of ‘seafloor communities’ in the New Zealand marine environment (a 75-group classification termed the New Zealand Seafloor Community Classification), a range of broader classifications (i.e., 4–20 groups) were assessed for their suitability to represent seafloor bioregions. Following analysis of within- and between-group classification strength using analysis of similarities (ANOSIM), and visually exploring the geographic patterns at different classification levels, the 9-group classification was defined as the New Zealand Seafloor Bioregionalisation. Bioregions were defined and described in terms of their characterising marine environmental conditions. Here we provide justification for the use of a 9-group classification to provide broad-scale geographical units which complements the higher resolution communities identified in the New Zealand Seafloor Community Classification. We discuss the use of the New Zealand Seafloor Bioregionalisation for incorporating bioregional representativeness in future marine spatial planning processes and the management of human activities. The New Zealand Seafloor Bioregionalisation provides more relevant information for spatial planning within New Zealand waters than global or ocean-basin scale bioregionalisations, primarily due to the large amount of nationally relevant data used and applied at a fine spatial resolution.

Modelling spatial variation in an exploited species across marine reserve boundaries

Abstract An increase in exploited species within marine reserves is often expected to benefit adjacent fished areas through the movement or ‘spill‐over’ of exploited species across reserve boundaries. However, harvest at and near reserve boundaries can also decrease abundances inside reserves, forming ‘edge‐effects’. Spatial analysis of gradients in abundance across reserve boundaries have been used to interpret the extents of edge‐effects and spill‐over. While the shape of these gradients will vary depending on species mobility and fishing intensity on reserve boundaries, they have largely been assumed to be gradual and quantified using continuous modelling strategies. This study shows that continuous modelling strategies can lead to overestimations of spill‐over and edge‐effects by underfitting the rapid transition in abundance that can occur from reserve to fished areas. The abundances of spiny lobster (Jasus edwardsii) across the boundaries of two north‐eastern New Zealand marine reserves were quantified using catch survey data collected over 2 years. Several modelling approaches were used, and the predictive performance of each approach was compared. Abrupt changes in lobster abundances were found across reserve boundaries and were best represented with models that incorporated a stepwise function across boundaries or where data from reserve and fished areas were modelled independently. Despite the mobile nature of this species, we found little evidence of edge‐effects and spill‐over within and adjacent to the surveyed marine reserves, which may reflect the low population status within these reserves. In contrast, standard continuous modelling approaches overestimated the extent of edge‐effects and spill‐over in both marine reserves. Policy implications. This study shows how accurate assessments of edge‐effects and spill‐over can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of existing marine reserves in protecting exploited species. These findings emphasise the importance comparing several different modelling strategies when evaluating edge‐effects and spill‐over to ensure appropriate model fits. Although modelling approaches such as generalised additive models present a simple solution to exploring spatial variation in ecological data, we emphasise the importance of questioning the applicability of such strategies when assessing variation across areas of rapid change such as protected area boundaries.

Marine protected areas provide unfished reference information to empirically assess fishery status

Fisheries stock assessments typically determine stock-status using estimates of unfished biomass generated from fisheries dependent data. Due to limitations and biases in these data, modelled unfished estimates are reliant on assumptions regarding stock ecology. This can lead to a high degree of uncertainty in estimates of unfished biomass and can compromise sustainable management. We propose using the biomass of exploited species in no-take marine protected areas (marine reserves) as a proxy for unfished biomass to empirically assess stock status. Marine reserves provide contemporary examples of exploited populations in the absence of fishing under current conditions. Using lobster (Jasus edwardsii) potting and diver-based survey data from 2018 and 2019 we calculated fisheries relevant metrics from inside and outside two north-eastern New Zealand marine reserves. Based on marine reserve reference points, we found spawning stock catch rates and biomass of lobster in adjacent fished areas were 3 % and 2 % of unfished levels. Comparability of potting and dive survey estimates validates using dive survey data to estimate stock status, while differences in population information between survey methods highlights the limited ability of catch data to accurately inform on sub-legal abundances. Overall, our fisheries-independent approach suggests the fished population is at lower levels than latest estimates for the wider fishery and demonstrates how marine reserves can provide information on key parameters which can be incorporated into traditional stock assessments. Planning for future marine reserves should consider the value of such areas as tools to help manage fisheries in addition to protecting exploited species.

Large-scale genetic investigation of nematode diversity and their phylogenetic patterns in New Zealand's marine animals.

Nematodes constitute one of the most speciose metazoan groups on earth, and a significant proportion of them have parasitic life styles. Zooparasitic nematodes have zoonotic, commercial and ecological significance within natural systems. Due to their generally small size and hidden nature within their hosts, and the fact that species discrimination using traditional morphological characteristics is often challenging, their biodiversity is not well known, especially within marine ecosystems. For instance, the majority of New Zealand's marine animals have never been the subject of nematode studies, and many currently known nematodes in New Zealand await confirmation of their species identity with modern taxonomic techniques. In this study, we present the results of an extensive biodiversity survey and phylogenetic analyses of parasitic nematodes infecting New Zealand's marine animals. We used genetic data to differentiate nematodes to the lowest taxonomic level possible and present phylogenies of the dominant clades to illustrate their genetic diversity in New Zealand. Our findings reveal a high diversity of parasitic nematodes (23 taxa) infecting New Zealand's marine animals (62 of 94 free-living animal species investigated). The novel data collected here provide a solid baseline for future assessments of change in diversity and distribution of parasitic nematodes.

Annotated checklist and genetic data for parasitic helminths infecting New Zealand marine invertebrates

AbstractParasitic helminths with complex life cycles require multiple hosts in a particular order to complete their life cycles. Although almost all helminths infect invertebrates at some point in their life cycle, we know very little about which species of invertebrates harbor parasites compared with what is known for vertebrates. In New Zealand, <1% of marine invertebrates that may be expected to host parasites have records of parasite infections. This is a strong indication that our knowledge of invertebrate parasites within marine ecosystems is highly limited. Here, we provide the first comprehensive parasite–host checklist including data from the literature and newly discovered infections of parasitic helminths infecting marine invertebrates in New Zealand. Including both pre‐existing and newly found data from our survey, we present data on 73 parasite taxa (five acanthocephalans, 13 cestodes, nine nematodes, and 46 trematodes) infecting 62 marine invertebrate species in New Zealand. In addition, we compile existing and new genetic data for many of these parasites, as a useful tool for future studies of parasite biodiversity and phylogenetics.

Development of a Seafloor Community Classification for the New Zealand Region Using a Gradient Forest Approach

To support ongoing marine spatial planning in New Zealand, a numerical environmental classification using Gradient Forest models was developed using a broad suite of biotic and high-resolution environmental predictor variables. Gradient Forest modeling uses species distribution data to control the selection, weighting and transformation of environmental predictors to maximise their correlation with species compositional turnover. A total of 630,997 records (39,766 unique locations) of 1,716 taxa living on or near the seafloor were used to inform the transformation of 20 gridded environmental variables to represent spatial patterns of compositional turnover in four biotic groups and the overall seafloor community. Compositional turnover of the overall community was classified using a hierarchical procedure to define groups at different levels of classification detail. The 75-group level classification was assessed as representing the highest number of groups that captured the majority of the variation across the New Zealand marine environment. We refer to this classification as the New Zealand “Seafloor Community Classification” (SCC). Associated uncertainty estimates of compositional turnover for each of the biotic groups and overall community were also produced, and an added measure of uncertainty – coverage of the environmental space – was developed to further highlight geographic areas where predictions may be less certain owing to low sampling effort. Environmental differences among the deep-water New Zealand SCC groups were relatively muted, but greater environmental differences were evident among groups at intermediate depths in line with well-defined oceanographic patterns observed in New Zealand’s oceans. Environmental differences became even more pronounced at shallow depths, where variation in more localised environmental conditions such as productivity, seafloor topography, seabed disturbance and tidal currents were important differentiating factors. Environmental similarities in New Zealand SCC groups were mirrored by their biological compositions. The New Zealand SCC is a significant advance on previous numerical classifications and includes a substantially wider range of biological and environmental data than has been attempted previously. The classification is critically appraised and considerations for use in spatial management are discussed.

Long-read sequencing reveals atypical mitochondrial genome structure in a New Zealand marine isopod.

Most animal mitochondrial genomes are small, circular and structurally conserved. However, recent work indicates that diverse taxa possess unusual mitochondrial genomes. In Isopoda, species in multiple lineages have atypical and rearranged mitochondrial genomes. However, more species of this speciose taxon need to be evaluated to understand the evolutionary origins of atypical mitochondrial genomes in this group. In this study, we report the presence of an atypical mitochondrial structure in the New Zealand endemic marine isopod, Isocladus armatus. Data from long- and short-read DNA sequencing suggest that I. armatus has two mitochondrial chromosomes. The first chromosome consists of two mitochondrial genomes that have been inverted and fused together in a circular form, and the second chromosome consists of a single mitochondrial genome in a linearized form. This atypical mitochondrial structure has been detected in other isopod lineages, and our data from an additional divergent isopod lineage (Sphaeromatidae) lends support to the hypothesis that atypical structure evolved early in the evolution of Isopoda. Additionally, we find that an asymmetrical site previously observed across many species within Isopoda is absent in I. armatus, but confirm the presence of two asymmetrical sites recently reported in two other isopod species.

Geographic concordance of genetic barriers in New Zealand coastal marine species

Abstract Comparative phylogeography is recognized as a powerful tool to discern common patterns of connectivity across species, information that can be crucial in assisting the design of protected area networks. Previously, qualitative analyses have been undertaken in New Zealand waters in order to find concordance in marine dispersal barriers. This study presents the first attempt to quantitatively measure the congruence in genetic divergence breaks among 21 New Zealand marine coastal invertebrates, while accounting for the effects of variable sampling scale, life history traits and marker type. Previously recognized phylogeographic barriers to dispersal were found to be significant across species, such as the North–South Island differentiation and a northern genetic break at Cape Reinga. Low‐dispersal species exhibited additional locations of common significant divergence. Some of the differences in genetic barriers observed among species may be more related to the habitat type of the species (intertidal zone or subtidal) and the marker type used in the study (mitochondrial DNA or microsatellites), than to the dispersal traits of the species (high or low dispersal). Despite some limitations, the approach implemented here has significant advantages and permits the use of data from a wide variety of studies. This study provides the first quantitative insight into community‐wide genetic barriers within New Zealand's coastal marine ecosystem and provides directions for future investigations of this type in other regions.

An investigation of antibacterial activity of New Zealand seaweed-associated marine bacteria.

Aim: To explore seaweed-associated bacteria as prospective producers of bioactive material with antibacterial properties. Materials & methods: 143 bacterial species were isolated from the surface of 15 New Zealand marine macroalgae. Bacterial extracts obtained using dimethyl sulfoxide and ethyl acetate were screened for antagonistic activities against three antimicrobial susceptibility indicators: Kocuria rhizophila, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Escherichia coli, using well-diffusion method. For selected species, minimum inhibitory concentration was determined, followed by a phylogenetic identification based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. Results: Among all bacteria screened, seven that belonged to the genera Vibrio, Pseudoalteromonas, Psychromonasand Cobetia, showed antagonistic activity against all three indicators. Conclusion: Seaweed-associated bacteria produce bioactive compounds with antimicrobial potential and possible biomedical application in aquatic habitats.

First satellite‐tracked movements of pygmy blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda)in New Zealand waters

Marine Mammal ScienceEarly View NOTE First satellite-tracked movements of pygmy blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus brevicauda) in New Zealand waters Kimberly T. Goetz, Corresponding Author Kimberly T. Goetz kim.goetz@noaa.gov orcid.org/0000-0002-1356-0512 National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, Washington, USA Correspondence Kimberly T. Goetz, Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA 98115-6349. Email: kim.goetz@noaa.govSearch for more papers by this authorSimon J. Childerhouse, Simon J. Childerhouse Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorDavid Paton, David Paton Blue Planet Marine, Canberra, Australia Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorMike Ogle, Mike Ogle Department of Conservation, Takaka, New Zealand Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorKrista van der Linde, Krista van der Linde National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New ZealandSearch for more papers by this authorRochelle Constantine, Rochelle Constantine orcid.org/0000-0003-3260-539X University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Marine Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand Contribution: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing - original draftSearch for more papers by this authorMichael C. Double, Michael C. Double Australian Marine Mammal Center, Australian Antarctic Division, Hobart, Australia Contribution: ​Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorVirginia Andrews-Goff, Virginia Andrews-Goff orcid.org/0000-0002-4609-7317 Australian Marine Mammal Center, Australian Antarctic Division, Hobart, Australia Contribution: Methodology, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorAlexandre N. Zerbini, Alexandre N. Zerbini orcid.org/0000-0002-9776-6605 Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, Washington, USA Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA Marine Ecology and Telemetry Research, Seabeck, Washington, USASearch for more papers by this authorPaula A. Olson, Paula A. Olson Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, La Jolla, California, USA Contribution: Data curation, ​Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this author Kimberly T. Goetz, Corresponding Author Kimberly T. Goetz kim.goetz@noaa.gov orcid.org/0000-0002-1356-0512 National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, Washington, USA Correspondence Kimberly T. Goetz, Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, WA 98115-6349. Email: kim.goetz@noaa.govSearch for more papers by this authorSimon J. Childerhouse, Simon J. Childerhouse Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorDavid Paton, David Paton Blue Planet Marine, Canberra, Australia Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorMike Ogle, Mike Ogle Department of Conservation, Takaka, New Zealand Contribution: Data curation, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorKrista van der Linde, Krista van der Linde National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New ZealandSearch for more papers by this authorRochelle Constantine, Rochelle Constantine orcid.org/0000-0003-3260-539X University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences and Institute of Marine Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand Contribution: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing - original draftSearch for more papers by this authorMichael C. Double, Michael C. Double Australian Marine Mammal Center, Australian Antarctic Division, Hobart, Australia Contribution: ​Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorVirginia Andrews-Goff, Virginia Andrews-Goff orcid.org/0000-0002-4609-7317 Australian Marine Mammal Center, Australian Antarctic Division, Hobart, Australia Contribution: Methodology, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this authorAlexandre N. Zerbini, Alexandre N. Zerbini orcid.org/0000-0002-9776-6605 Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Seattle, Washington, USA Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA Marine Ecology and Telemetry Research, Seabeck, Washington, USASearch for more papers by this authorPaula A. Olson, Paula A. Olson Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, La Jolla, California, USA Contribution: Data curation, ​Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editingSearch for more papers by this author First published: 25 September 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12876 Funding information: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; New Zealand Department of Conservation; OMV Ltd Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. 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Diversity of tropical macroalgae in the New Zealand marine aquarium trade

ABSTRACT Exotic species often slip through international borders undetected. Increased global trade has increased the frequency of species introductions. The marine aquarium trade is a significant vector of species introductions, including algal introductions. Molecular barcoding of tropical macroalgae entering the New Zealand aquarium trade was implemented using various molecular markers. Both NCBI BLAST searches and maximum-likelihood phylogenies were used to identify the isolates. A total of 62 species of tropical macroalgae were identified from coral rocks. Some species found are known as invasive elsewhere, for example, Caulerpa cylindracea, C. racemosa, C. sertularioides, Ulva ohnoi and Chaetomorpha vieillardii. All three major groups of algae were well represented with 26 species of red algae, 24 species of green algae and 12 species of brown algae. Temperature tolerance of some of these algae to minimum sea surface temperatures was tested. Results show that one species Chaetomorpha vieillardii can survive at Auckland minimum winter sea surface temperatures. Our findings have important implications for New Zealand biosecurity, as not only are a large diversity of exotic macroalgae entering the New Zealand marine aquarium trade unregulated, but there is also the potential for them to survive in New Zealand waters.

Functional beta diversity of New Zealand fishes: Characterising morphological turnover along depth and latitude gradients, with derivation of functional bioregions

AbstractChanges in the functional structures of communities are rarely examined along multiple large‐scale environmental gradients. Here, we describe patterns in functional beta diversity for New Zealand marine fishes versus depth and latitude, including broad‐scale delineation of functional bioregions. We derived eight functional traits related to food acquisition and locomotion and calculated complementary indices of functional beta diversity for 144 species of marine ray‐finned fishes occurring along large‐scale depth (50–1200 m) and latitudinal gradients (29°–51°S) in the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone. We focused on a suite of morphological traits calculated directly from in situ Baited Remote Underwater Stereo‐Video (stereo‐BRUV) footage and museum specimens. We found that functional changes were primarily structured by depth followed by latitude, and that latitudinal functional turnover decreased with increasing depth. Functional turnover among cells increased with increasing depth distance, but this relationship plateaued for greater depth distances (>750 m). In contrast, functional turnover did not change significantly with increasing latitudinal distance at 700–1200 m depths. Shallow functional bioregions (50–100 m) were distinct at different latitudes, whereas deeper bioregions extended across broad latitudinal ranges. Fishes in shallow depths had a body shape conducive to efficient propulsion, while fishes in deeper depths were more elongated, enabling slow, energy‐efficient locomotion, and had large eyes to enhance vision. Environmental filtering may be a primary driver of broad‐scale patterns of functional beta diversity in the deep sea. Greater environmental homogeneity may lead to greater functional homogeneity across latitudinal gradients at deeper depths (700–1200 m). We suggest that communities living at depth may follow a ‘functional village hypothesis’, whereby similar key functional niches in fish communities may be maintained over large spatial scales.

Ingestion of anthropogenic debris by marine fishes around New Zealand

ABSTRACT A summary is presented of the anthropogenic debris recorded up to 2020 in stomachs of marine fishes from New Zealand waters. This material (mainly plastics) was found in the stomachs of 28 species, with 24 of these species identified in two studies alone. Most of the New Zealand records were not identified in recently published global assessments of plastic ingestion by fish; the likely reasons for this are discussed. Consumption of anthropogenic debris by fish in New Zealand waters is probably a widespread phenomenon, particularly for inshore demersal species with an algal dietary component and for offshore pelagic species that prey on gelatinous biota. Based on currently available data, this behaviour may occur relatively less frequently in deeper water demersal habitats, although no studies investigating the ingestion of microplastic particles by fish in this section of the New Zealand marine environment have yet been completed. The likelihood of identifying plastics in fish diets is strongly dependent on the analytical method used.

Concordant geographic and genetic structure revealed by genotyping-by-sequencing in a New Zealand marine isopod.

Population genetic structure in the marine environment can be influenced by life‐history traits such as developmental mode (biphasic, with distinct adult and larval morphology, and direct development, in which larvae resemble adults) or habitat specificity, as well as geography and selection. Developmental mode is thought to significantly influence dispersal, with direct developers expected to have much lower dispersal potential. However, this prediction can be complicated by the presence of geophysical barriers to dispersal. In this study, we use a panel of 8,020 SNPs to investigate population structure and biogeography over multiple spatial scales for a direct‐developing species, the New Zealand endemic marine isopod Isocladus armatus. Because our sampling range is intersected by two well‐known biogeographic barriers (the East Cape and the Cook Strait), our study provides an opportunity to understand how such barriers influence dispersal in direct developers. On a small spatial scale (20 km), gene flow between locations is extremely high, suggestive of an island model of migration. However, over larger spatial scales (600 km), populations exhibit a clear pattern of isolation‐by‐distance. Our results indicate that I. armatus exhibits significant migration across the hypothesized barriers and suggest that large‐scale ocean currents associated with these locations do not present a barrier to dispersal. Interestingly, we find evidence of a north‐south population genetic break occurring between Māhia and Wellington. While no known geophysical barrier is apparent in this area, it coincides with the location of a proposed border between bioregions. Analysis of loci under selection revealed that both isolation‐by‐distance and adaption may be contributing to the degree of population structure we have observed here. We conclude that developmental life history largely predicts dispersal in the intertidal isopod I. armatus. However, localized biogeographic processes can disrupt this expectation, and this may explain the potential meta‐population detected in the Auckland region.

Enhanced biodiversity and abundance of benthic invertebrate macrofauna in a New Zealand marine reserve

Abstract No‐take marine reserves are an important management tool in the conservation and restoration of marine habitats around the world. They are intended to provide spatial refugia for exploited species and to protect sensitive habitat and biodiversity hot spots. Despite strong evidence that marine reserves enhance overall biodiversity, it is not clear that this effect extends to all taxonomic groups. Most marine reserves are designed to protect large mobile fauna. Their effect on small sessile benthic invertebrates is unclear, yet these organisms provide critical ecosystem functions. Three hundred and seventy‐eight images and associated faunal descriptions were compared from 2007 and 2018 in Ulva Island/Te Wharawhara Marine Reserve, Stewart Island/Rakiura, New Zealand (46.9°S, 168.1°E, 0–25 m depth, established 2004), to discern the effect of non‐extractive marine protection on a soft‐sediment temperate benthic community. Qualitative habitat types observed in the 2018 images were similar to those described in 2007. There was a significant positive effect of protection on benthic invertebrate abundance between 2007 and 2018 across Paterson Inlet/Whaka a Te Wera. Additionally, there were significantly more benthic invertebrates within reserve sites compared with sites outside the reserve in 2018. Based on these positive effects, it can be concluded that Ulva Island/Te Wharawhara Marine Reserve has facilitated an increase in the biodiversity of the benthic invertebrate community of Paterson Inlet/Whaka a Te Wera, Stewart Island/Rakiura. Interestingly, heavily calcified biogenic reefs were present within Paterson Inlet/Whaka a Te Wera, but not within the reserve itself. The re‐evaluation of marine reserve boundaries could result in more comprehensive and representative management of the rich marine environment around Stewart Island/Rakiura.