Zealand's Indigenous People Research Articles

Whakarongo Mai: Listening to the views of tamariki, whānau and kaimahi within the Aotearoa New Zealand child protection system

BackgroundThe Aotearoa New Zealand child protection system consistently fails Māori (Aotearoa New Zealand's Indigenous peoples), with recent reports calling for fundamental changes. Those longer-term shifts are necessary, but short-term changes are also needed. One such change is a shift in the way child protection decisions are made, and the ways in which tamariki (children) and whānau (families) are involved in those processes. ObjectiveThis research sought to explore the views of a small group of Māori people with experience of the child protection system on one overarching question, “how should decisions about the safety and wellbeing of tamariki Māori be made, and what role should whānau and tamariki themselves play in that process?” Participants, method and settingEight semi-structured interviews were conducted, seven of which were in person and one of which took place online. All participants were Māori, and all of them had involvement with the child protection system in either a personal or a professional capacity. Two of the participants were young people themselves. Findings and conclusionThree overarching themes were identified: that the voices of tamariki, whānau and kaimahi (professionals) all have a place, but the current system doesn't strike the right balance, that the value of tikanga (Māori cultural values and practices) cannot be understated, but care is needed for whānau who may not know that tikanga, and that the challenges experienced by whānau in this context are often intergenerational. The paper concludes with a discussion of implications for law and policy.

Who are the Māori “in-between”? Indigenous diversity and inequity across descent, ethnicity and Iwi knowledge

ABSTRACT Policies increasingly reinforce the self-determination of Indigenous peoples, but issues remain around group definitions. Colonization has led to (de)identification with Māori (New Zealand's Indigenous peoples) identity markers. We explore differences between Māori on combinations of descent, ethnicity and Iwi (extended kinship group) knowledge in the 2013 Census, and self-reported discrimination. There were six groups within the Māori descent population: two did not know their Iwi – some identified solely as Māori ethnicity (2.8 per cent) – or Māori plus another ethnicity(-ies; 6.8 per cent); two did not identify as Māori ethnicity: more named their Iwi (7.2 per cent), than not (6.9 per cent); the largest groups knew their Iwi and identified as Māori ethnicity, either solely (30.8 per cent), or alongside another ethnicity(-ies; 34.3 per cent). We found a pattern of differences across demographics and discrimination, highlighting the complexity of Māori identity and the need to account for differences within Indigenous groups.

A missing piece of the puzzle of on-farm freshwater restoration: What motivates land managers to record and report land management actions?

Worldwide, progress has been made toward managing productive lands more sustainably to improve freshwater health. However, a lack of national guidance for environmental reporting and recording means that it is not possible to quantify consistently which land management actions that help improve water quality have been implemented, where, when, and to what extent. This situation suggests that information on the effectiveness of these actions is missing or fragmented. Systematic recording and reporting of land management actions is an important piece of a large freshwater restoration puzzle. We investigated what motivates New Zealand land managers to record their actions and report them to their networks by conducting 23 semi-structured interviews. Between February and November 2020, we spoke with food producers, New Zealand Indigenous people of the land <em>tāngata whenua</em> community members, and government and industry representatives. The key themes that described motivators for these land managers to record and report land management actions were collective engagement (e.g., working with catchment care groups), identity and social norms (e.g., being a “socially approved” farmer), and efficient farm management (e.g., using one simple recording tool for multiple purposes to save time). While these findings will be broadly germane to international contexts, they are being used specifically to inform the development of a proposed National Register of Land Management Actions in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Indigenous Māori experiences of fundamental care delivery in an acute inpatient setting: A qualitative analysis of feedback survey data.

This study aimed to explore inpatient healthcare delivery experiences of Māori (New Zealand's Indigenous people) patients and their whānau (extended family network) at a large tertiary hospital in New Zealand to (a) determine why Māori are less satisfied with the relational and psychosocial aspects of fundamental care delivery compared to other ethnic groups; (b) identify what aspects of care delivery are most important to them; and (c) contribute to the refinement of the Fundamentals of Care framework to have a deeper application of Indigenous concepts that support health and well-being. Bi-annual Fundamentals of Care audits at the study site have shown that Māori are more dissatisfied with aspects of fundamental care delivery than other ethnic groups. Retrospective analysis of narrative feedback from survey data using an exploratory descriptive qualitative approach. Three hundred and fifty-four questionnaires containing narrative patient experience feedback were collected from the study site's patient experience survey reporting system. Content analysis was used to analyse the data in relation to the Fundamentals of Care framework and Māori concepts of health and well-being. The research complies with the SRQR guidelines for reporting qualitative research. Four themes were identified: being treated with kindness and respect; communication and partnership; family is the fundamental support structure; and inclusion of culture in the delivery of care. The current iteration of the Fundamentals of Care framework does not reflect in depth how indigenous groups view health and healthcare delivery. The inclusion of an Indigenous paradigm in the framework could improve healthcare delivery experiences of Indigenous peoples. Research around the application and relevance of the Fundamentals of Care framework to Indigenous groups provides an opportunity to refine the framework to improve health equity, and healthcare delivery for Indigenous people.

Cancer care disparities among Australian and Aotearoa New Zealand Indigenous peoples.

Persistent and significant inequalities for Indigenous people with cancer around the globe exist, arising from colonial settlement of Indigenous land with profound social, economic and cultural impacts. We summarize recent publications concerning cancer disparities affecting Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Aotearoa New Zealand Māori Peoples. Cancer-free survival and overall survival statistics testify to the urgent need to 'close the gap'. For Indigenous peoples in Australia and New Zealand, disparity persists along the cancer care pathway, from increased risk factors to lower screening access, health resource utilization and survivorship care. Recent publications highlight multimorbidity as contributing to poor cancer outcomes in Indigenous populations. The implementation of tailored Optimal Care Pathways is described, as is the validation of tailored tools capturing the perspectives of Indigenous persons. Finally, the importance of Indigenous-led research is emphasized. Cancer-specific outcomes in Indigenous people of Australia and New Zealand remain poor with many widening disparities compared to non-indigenous populations. A growing body of epidemiological, health service and clinical research is documenting both the problems and potential solutions. Further work is needed in both broad health policies and the workforce, in building cultural competence to optimize individual care encounters.

Variations in the health benefit valuations of active transport modes by age and ethnicity: A case study from New Zealand

Abstract: Introduction Economic valuation of the health benefits of active transport modes (such as walking and cycling) is an important means of incentivising changes in transport and land-use policy that better support human health. However, existing valuation methods do not adequately examine how these benefits might vary within a population. Using data from New Zealand, we investigate the extent to which active transport health benefit valuations vary by age and ethnicity. Methods We extended a health benefit valuation method used by the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA) to value the health benefits of walking and cycling, stratified by age and ethnicity. Results Walking was estimated to have a health benefit of $1.00 per kilometre (New Zealand dollars) for those aged 15–64 years but a benefit of $5.79/km for those aged 65–74 years old. For cycling the health benefits were $0.50/km and $2.90/km respectively. Among people aged 15–64 years, the health benefits of walking were $1.75/km for Māori (New Zealand's indigenous people) and $0.88/km for non-Māori. The equivalent values for cycling were $0.87/km and $0.44/km respectively. There was a greater difference in health benefit by age for Māori ($1.75/km vs $15.12/km of walking for the 15–64 and 65–74 age groups respectively) than for non-Māori ($0.88/km vs $5.11/km of walking for the 15–64 and 65–74 age groups respectively). Conclusions The estimated health benefits of active transport are not evenly distributed within the New Zealand population but vary by age and ethnicity. Improvements to the efficiency and equity of active transport investment could potentially be made by taking account of variations in health status within the population.

Māori Becoming Peer Educators in Later Life: Impacts on Identity, Well-being, and Social Connectedness.

The aim of this study was to examine ways that older Māori (New Zealand's Indigenous people) enhanced their ability to be peer educators and how this role impacted on their sense of purpose and well-being in later life. Kaupapa Māori and community-based participatory research principles guided the peer intervention involving 26 Māori kaumātua (older people 55 years and older) as peer educators (tuakana) for 121 other kaumātua (teina) facing transitions in later life. Each pair held up to 3 conversations; independent coders rated tuakana communication skills. We used mixed methods in a pre- and post-test, clustered staggered design. Participants completed baseline and post-intervention assessments of health and well-being consistent with Māori worldviews. 5 focus groups involving 22 teina and 1 with 5 tuakana were held. Tuakana communication skills were rated as high by teina and independent coders. Qualitative analysis supported the importance of Māori communication processes for the role. Further, three measures increased significantly from the baseline to the final period for tuakana accounting for about 15% of the variance in these variables: sense of purpose (p = .07), self-rated health (p = .05), and health-related quality of life (p = .04). The qualitative analysis supported the benefits of the peer educator role for older Māori including enhanced sense of identity, well-being, and social connectedness. The results demonstrated that kaumātua had strong communication in the peer educator role and that the intervention has positive impacts for them. The study contributes to peer intervention research that may help to improve experiences ofIndigenous and other older people.

Elevated mercury concentrations in the feathers of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma gouldi) in New Zealand

Our objective was to measure the concentrations of Hg, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Pb, Sb, V and Zn in the body feathers of grey-faced petrel (Pterodroma gouldi), fluttering shearwater (Puffinus gavia), little shearwater (Puffinus assimilis) and common diving petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix) from breeding colonies in New Zealand between 2006 and 2013. The mean Hg concentration (36.48ppm; SD=9.59) in grey-faced petrel feathers was approximately 8.5 to 14 times that detected in the other three species sampled. We detected no trend or differences in Hg concentrations in grey-faced petrels over the 8years of this study, but Hg concentrations varied between breeding colonies although there was no strong relationship with latitude. The elevated Hg concentrations detected in grey-faced petrels could pose a risk to the breeding performance of grey-faced petrels and the customary harvest of chicks by Māori (New Zealand's indigenous peoples).

Recruiting Pregnant Indigenous Women Who Smoke into a High Contact Incentivized Cessation Trial: A Feasibility Study.

Smoking prevalence among pregnant indigenous women is disproportionately higher than for nonindigenous pregnant women. Incentives have been shown to increase retention in and the effectiveness of smoking cessation programs. To trial if this could work for indigenous women, we aimed to recruit and observe retention of Māori (New Zealand indigenous people) pregnant women that smoke into a cessation program using incentives. A parallel group, randomized controlled feasibility trial was undertaken in New Zealand. Pregnant Māori women who smoked were recruited through health practitioners, social media, and general media advertising. Outcomes included ease of recruitment, enrollment rate, retention, cost, and time and distance traveled to visit participants. Seventy-four women were referred for the trial over 7 months. The highest enrollment rate was among self-referrals from media (6 of 10), then women referred from cessation providers (47%, 8 of 17). About three-quarters of women referred from health professionals did not enroll. Only 32% (24) were randomized. Nine women completed the intervention, three withdrew, and 12 were lost to follow-up. On average, it took less time to contact abstinent participants (29 vs. 43 minutes for nonabstinent women). No deception was noted. Recruitment was difficult and varied by source of first contact. Once enrolled, it was feasible to maintain intensive contact with participants who stayed engaged. The number lost to follow-up was high. We concluded that the tenor of trial promotion could have influenced recruitment and retention rates. Further research with indigenous women is needed to identify better recruitment and retention methods. With the rising cost of research and the increased competition for funds, it is important to have evidence that intervention studies with minority group pregnant women who smoke are feasible. Maintaining contact with participants seemed feasible, but the tenor of trial promotion and type of recruitment strategy could influence enrollment and retention of sufficient numbers of participants. Nonjudgmental supportive advertising and invitations direct to women may work better than relying on health professionals as recruiters.

The Politics of Knowledge: Anthropology and Māori Modernity in Mid-Twentieth-Century New Zealand

This article argues that growing confidence in anthropology as a tool for managing the adaptation of a resurgent Māori population to modernity shaped a “politics of knowledge” regarding New Zealand's indigenous people in the mid-twentieth century. We examine the relationship between anthropological discourse, state policy, and the Māori struggle to uphold traditional ways, through the prism of Ernest and Pearl Beaglehole's psycho-ethnographic study entitled Some Modern Māoris (Beaglehole, E., and P. Beaglehole. 1946. Some Modern Māoris. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research). This paper demonstrates that the study was the product of a nexus between concerns for Māori welfare, a perceived need for empirical research that could be applied to the “problem” of indigenous adjustment to contemporary conditions, and American philanthropy. For this reason, and as a detailed record of a small community when Māori society was on the cusp of post-Second World War transformations, we contend that the study deserves to be recovered from historical obscurity.

Local people see and care most? Severe depletion of inshore fisheries and its consequences for Māori communities in New Zealand

ABSTRACTOverfishing has the potential to adversely affect the ecological stability, economic value, social and spiritual integrity of a given area. Of these contexts, relatively little emphasis in literature is placed on the social and cultural consequences of overfishing and marine biodiversity loss.New Zealand's fisheries management system is regarded as one of the best in the world. But is this ‘success’ reflected at the local community scale? This study uses the knowledge of 100 participants from different stakeholder groups including Māori, New Zealand's indigenous peoples, and investigates local perception of the state of inshore fisheries stocks.Quantitative methods were used to assess the relative significance of important seafood species among different groups, while qualitative analysis highlighted main stakeholder concerns. A common consensus among all participants emerged; access to important inshore seafood species had become more difficult during the course of their lifetime with marked declines occurring from the 1970s onwards. Even where food species are present, they are typically harder to obtain, take longer to harvest and/or require expensive gear.Five species of marine invertebrates, three finfish species and one seabird were identified as having considerable worth to stakeholders. Of these, quantitative analysis revealed that pāua (abalone), tuna (eel) and tītī (muttonbird) were of particular significance to Māori stakeholders. Māori discussed pāua almost twice as much as non‐Māori, despite pāua ranking as the most significant species among both ethnic groups. Furthermore, Māori associated the depletion of pāua with a loss of cultural identity, hospitality, tradition, practices, emotional and spiritual connection to their environment. As such, in this paper pāua is defined as a ‘cultural keystone species’, whereby the removal of such a species jeopardizes cultural integrity.This paper serves as a case study bringing to light the disparity between an internationally acclaimed fisheries management strategy and the concerns of local stakeholders. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Pregnant Māori Smokers’ Perception of Cessation Support and How It Can Be More Helpful

This study aimed to investigate the perception of smoking cessation services and products by pregnant Māori (New Zealand's Indigenous people) smokers and identify how these can be improved. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted with 60 pregnant Māori smokers. Most of the women (82%) had been advised to stop smoking, but few (21%) felt influenced by the advice. In addition, the women in this study felt that health provider support needed to be more encouraging, understanding and more readily available. Many (78%) had come across smokefree pamphlets, but few had read them. Only four women had been given a booklet specifically aimed at pregnant Māori women. Several women thought that the promotion of smokefree pregnancies needed to be aimed at the whole whānau (extended family). The main conclusions were that motivation to quit could be enhanced by delivery of a clear, consistent and repeated message from multiple sources, backed up with effective, supportive and encouraging services and education resources about risks and smoking cessation options. Primary health care interventions delivering a range of services need to be flexible – for example, by visiting pregnant women in their home – and need to target the whole expectant whānau, instead of focusing on pregnant women in isolation.

Why People Gamble: A Qualitative Study of Four New Zealand Ethnic Groups

In multicultural countries such as New Zealand, it is particularly important that gambling research take into account possible cultural differences. Many New Zealanders come from cultures that do not have a history of gambling, including the Mäori (New Zealand indigenous people), Pacific Islanders, and recent migrants. Little research has examined the reasons why people start and continue to gamble, especially among different ethnic groups. This research project thus aimed to develop a framework to explain how environmental, cultural, and social factors interact with personal attributes to determine gambling behaviors. In a qualitative study, 131 people broadly representative of Mäori, Pacific, Asian, and Päkehä/New Zealand European groups residing in New Zealand were interviewed individually or in focus groups. They included social and problem gamblers, families of problem gamblers, and professionals. Different personal, socioeconomic, environmental, and cultural factors were identified, summarized in a developmental framework, and compared to factors found for ethnic groups in other countries. Public health policy issues were raised, including greater control of gambling promotion.

Navigating between Māori particularism and economic universalism in adult literacy provision in Aotearoa New Zealand: the case of a Wānanga

This paper examines tensions between adult literacy policy in Aotearoa New Zealand and the philosophies and mission of one post-school institution, a Wānanga, an institution focused on the education of Māori, Aotearoa New Zealand's indigenous people. It uses policy documents, interview data and complexity thinking to explore the tensions created by a Wānanga's task to navigate between Māori particularism and economic universalism.

Ethnic differences in patterns of occupational exposure in New Zealand

To investigate the differences in occupational exposure between Māori (New Zealand's indigenous people) and non-Māori. Participants were randomly selected from the Electoral Roll. Exposure to occupational risk factors was assessed through telephone interviews and exposure prevalences of Māori (n = 273) and non-Māori (n = 2,724) were compared. Subsequently, Māori were matched with non-Māori on current occupation (n = 482) to assess whether ethnic differences also exist within occupations. Māori were more likely to report exposure to physical strain (e.g., lifting, standing). Part of these differences remained when Māori were compared with non-Māori in the same job. In addition, Māori women were twice as likely to categorize their job as very or extremely stressful than non-Māori women in the same job, while Māori men were twice as likely to report exposure to dust. Marked ethnic differences exist in risk factors for occupational ill-health, due to both occupational distribution and the distribution of tasks within occupations.

`Dress as a man'

This article is based on 13 open-ended interviews with current and former executive council members of the New Zealand Men's Netball Association (NZMNA). The article disputes the established view that regional women's netball associations and New Zealand's national netball association, Netball New Zealand (NNZ), fostered men's netball competitions in the early 1980s. The article instead argues that men's netball was developed by players prevented from participating in women's competitions. The article also suggests that the limited existing literature relating to the NZMNA fails to acknowledge much of the detail and character of the early association, including the critical influences of gay and transgender players and the cultural influences of Māori (New Zealand's indigenous people) and Pacific Islanders. Only more recently have flamboyant displays and marginalized masculinities been excluded, thereby rendering the NZMNA netball competitions a relatively hetero-normative domain.

ANZSJA's Songlines and Haerenga model of training

Part One and Part Two of this article present the Australian and New Zealand Society of Jungian Analysts' 2006 model of training. The authors describe the process and thinking behind ANZSJA's recent revision of training. The influences on the development of analytical psychology and analytic training in ANZSJA are traced in the first paper. The training review undertaken indicated the desire for ANZSJA to continue to train Jungian analysts by exploring new ways of conceptualizing training. The images, metaphors and thinking, which underlie this innovative training model, are explored. The challenge involved in providing and developing training across a large geographic region with widely distributed and slender resources was embraced. ANZSJA have acknowledged the traditional practices of Australian and New Zealand indigenous peoples. The motif of journey and movement is at the core of the ANZJSA model. The ANZJSA training is not held or contained in a building or buildings but rather held at 'meeting sites' across the landscape of these two countries. Accountability and transparency are central to this training model. In Part Two of the article the structure and documentation developed for this model are contextualized, outlined and linked to the ethos underpinning the current thrust of analytical training in Australia and New Zealand. The focus is the practical mechanisms and processes, which we have evolved to deliver our new training model. The process of engaging analysts in the new model is discussed.

Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management initiatives

Abstract Jellyman, D. J. 2007. Status of New Zealand fresh-water eel stocks and management initiatives. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 64: 1379–1386. New Zealand has two main species of fresh-water eel, shortfin (Anguilla australis), which is shared with Southeast Australia, and the endemic longfin eel (A. dieffenbachii). Both species are subject to extensive commercial and customary fishing. The shortfin is the smaller and shorter lived, with typical generation times for females ranging from 15 to 30 years; generation times for longfin females are double this. The distribution and the abundance of both species have been compromised by habitat modifications, shortfins, the more lowland species, being affected by wetland loss, and longfins by weirs and dams. Although there are few concerns about the status of shortfins, there is increasing evidence of overexploitation of longfins, including reduced recruitment, reduction in catch rates, reduction in abundance and average size, and a regional reduction in the proportion of females. Eels are managed under the quota management system, although individual and regional quotas are set from catch histories because biological parameters are inadequate. Maori, New Zealand's indigenous people, have been allocated 20% of commercial quota, with additional quota set for customary take. The annual commercial catch of eels has halved over the past decade, and is now ∼700–800 t, shortfins comprising 66% of catches. Recent management developments have included enhancement of upstream waters with juvenile eels, consolidation of processing into fewer but larger units, setting aside of additional reserve areas to increase escapement of silver eels, increased management involvement of Maori, and development of regional management strategies.

Spatial conflicts in New Zealand fisheries: The rights of fishers and protection of the marine environment

Abstract New Zealand fisheries legislation provides commercial fishing rights to holders of individual transferable quota (ITQ). The settlement of fisheries claims against the Crown by Maori, New Zealand's indigenous people, brought about the transfer of ITQ holdings to Maori, and an obligation on the Crown to recognise and provide for indigenous (customary) fishing rights over fishing grounds and other areas that have been of special significance to Maori. Some types of customary fishing areas exclude commercial fishing and could affect recreational fishing. Fisheries legislation requires that regulatory measures be put in place to avoid, remedy or mitigate the adverse effects of fishing. The Government also aims to protect marine biodiversity by having 10% of New Zealand waters in some form of protection by 2010. The legislative processes for protecting the marine environment and establishing customary fishing areas include assessment of effects on fishing rights. This paper explores the conflicts that arise from legislative obligations to uphold the rights of fishers, to sustain fishstocks and to protect the marine environment. The paper concludes that inconsistent legislative obligations and their disparate processes have led to spatial conflicts and a race for the allocation of space. Legislative obligations need to be integrated to maintain a balance between use of fisheries resources and protection of the marine environment.

One Teacher's Story: Creating a New Future or Living up to Our Own History?

SOMETIME during my 14 years of teaching in Montana, I became vaguely aware of a Montana law known as Education for All (IEFA). I teach junior high language arts in a school far from a reservation, and few of my students identify themselves as Native American. So, because of the many other things clamoring for my attention every day, felt no pressing need to learn more about the law or how might apply to my school or to If it did have something to do with me, I reassured myself, someone would tell And if it had anything to do with the students at my school, it must already be a part of the social studies curriculum. About a year ago, I heard Montana's legislators debating school funding for IEFA, and I began to grow curious. So I did a little research and discovered that the state legislature had passed the Education for All Act in 1999. Written to support Montana's new state constitution, enacted in 1972, the law directs schools to teach all students about the cultural heritage and contemporary contributions of Montana's American Indians. According to the law, all school personnel are also expected to gain an understanding of and appreciation for the American School personnel? I thought. me. With the nagging suspicion that IEFA might, in fact, have implications for me and my school, I finally read the law. It is impressive, for it is deeply rooted in democracy and reflects so much of what I believe about the roles and responsibilities of education in our society. As I've learned more about IEFA, I've come to feel proud that my state is taking the lead in what I hope will become a national movement in American education. Perhaps most important, I now realize that I have a clear responsibility to my students and to myself. And that means I have a lot of work to do. WHY DIDN'T I KNOW? A year ago, I knew very little about American history, and what I did know about Montana's tribes could have been gleaned from a tourism brochure. That's because I--like most other Americans--am a product of a system of education that simply does not include Indians. In my high school class in Ohio history, for example, I learned matter-of-factly how the Shawnee, Wyandot, and Erie tribes disappeared when Mad Anthony Wayne killed them off to clear the way for settlers to move west. Today, I would call that ethnic cleansing. But the authors of my textbook didn't even hint that it might represent some injustice. Instead, this process was celebrated as Manifest Destiny. However, at least some Ohio Indians must have escaped Wayne's slaughter and the later removal to Indian Territory because I saw Indians once a year when my parents took me to an Ohio festival. I must have been aware that Indians lived somewhere in the state, but I never wondered where or how they lived. I don't know why it has taken me so long to notice my ignorance. Nearly 30 years ago, I lived and studied in Otorohanga, New Zealand. While in school there, I learned the history, language, and culture of the Maori, New Zealand's indigenous people. I attended school and played basketball with Maori kids. They were a visible part of every community. You would think that I might have made a connection. I might have wondered where the indigenous people in my country were. I didn't see them in my high school. No class existed to teach me their language and culture. It was as if Indians weren't even there--weren't even a part of our society. And yet they were there, and I could have seen them if I'd known to look. With the support of IEFA, perhaps today's students in Montana schools will notice, both while they're in school and when they reach adulthood. American Indians live in all parts of Montana, where I now live. But I honestly can't say that I have been any more aware of them or of their histories and cultures than I was years ago in Ohio. Nor have I been aware of any expectation that, as a teacher and citizen of a state where Native Americans are so prominent, I should know. …