Organized Youth Sport Research Articles

Teaching Core Values through Physical Activity Using a Tangible Item

To foster positive youth development (PYD), sport organizations, programs, coaches, and program leaders should use holistic youth development in a pro-social manner and provide a nurturing climate. This article offers an idea for a tangible way to promote PYD in sport and physical activity settings via a patch system.

Examining the Impact of the Funding System on Organized Youth Sport in Portugal: Implications for Research and Practice

The purpose of this critical commentary is to provide insights about the impact of funding structures on youth sport research and programming, with a particular focus on research priorities and access to quality youth sport experiences across competitive youth sport programs. Portugal is used as a case studyto provide insights about how funding structures may be strategically positioned to positively influence competitive youth sport programs and associated research efforts. The field of competitive youth sports constitutes a complex network influenced by cultural, social, and political factors, where multiple decision makers are driven by funding requirements, performance ideals, and societal norms. This context, although promising, faces challenges such as the prevalence of a lucrative market that prioritizes competitive outcomes, exacerbating inequalities and inherently neoliberal ideals. A strong emphasis placed by funding on winning and performance development may undermine other concerns to emerge across competitive youth sport programs. Furthermore, research programs play a crucial role in understanding and providing novel pathways for competitive youth sport. However there are challenges in seeking funding and academic recognition for these endeavours, which can create a disconnect between knowledge creation and actual needs. This reflection seeks to stimulate an open and constructive dialogue, calling on all actors that are part of the competitive youth system to develop collaborative efforts to make competitive youth sport a holistic experience accessible to all.

Why sports? Sketching a typology of young people’s reasons for taking part in sports

We sketch a typology of sport participation reasons grounded in data from 2581 short-answers from youths in organized sports. We develop the typology abductively against theories from philosophy, sociology, and psychology to better capture the full scale of possible participation reasons in organized youth sport. Key empirical findings are, first, that in addition to having fun and being with friends, youths participate to expand their social networks and develop weak social ties into stronger ones. Second, competition and mastery are intertwined. Competitions can function as a measure stick for individual and team skill development. Third, physical and mental health reasons are common participation reasons. Youths appreciate how sport impact their everyday health. Fourth, youths combine reasons for sport participation in diverse ways that have theoretical and practical implications. We end by suggesting two ideal types of how organized sport participation reasons combine—a heavy and light sport appreciation.

Sexual Harassment/Abuse Policies in U.S. Youth Sport Programs.

Sport governing bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, have recommended youth sport organizations develop policies, procedures, and/or ethical guidelines to prevent and respond to sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) experienced by young athletes. To our knowledge, no studies have investigated SHA policies or procedures in U.S. youth sport programs. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine U.S. youth sport programs' policies regarding SHA. The results are based on a cross-sectional survey completed by youth sport coaches (n = 200) from various organizations (e.g., public recreation organizations, private nonprofit organizations, and interscholastic sports). Findings suggest that most organizations have several SHA policies, such as education and training requirements, written policies and codes of conduct regarding coach-athlete sexual relationships, and formal complaint and disclosure procedures for investigating SHA. A bivariate analysis suggests that the presence of several SHA policies was associated with an increased number of self-reported SHA incidents. Moreover, youth sport programs located in urban areas had a greater extent of SHA policies compared to those located in suburban or rural areas. These results are discussed with respect to the potential relationships between the presence of policies and increased cases of SHA. Also, we discussed advocating for equitable resources among youth sport programs regardless of geographic and/or demographic factors. Future research should identify social and cultural barriers that inhibit the successful implementation of SHA policies. While developing and implementing SHA policies is a step in the right direction, it may not be used as the only means to address this complex, systematic, and structural issue.

Better to Have Played Than Not Played? Childhood Sport Participation, Dropout Frequencies and Reasons, and Mental Health in Adulthood

This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participation, informed by an accumulation model of health, the Sport Commitment Model, and a life course perspective. Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,931) and multiple regression analyses, results indicate that adults who continually played organized youth sport had fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms compared with those who played and dropped out and those who never played. Dropouts had worse mental health than those who never played. Furthermore, among dropouts, reported interpersonal reasons for dropping out of organized sport were consistently associated with subsequent mental health but some structural factors also mattered. These findings point to a need to improve the interpersonal and structural environments of organized youth sport.

Validation of the Sport Motivation Scale-II: Implications for the Portuguese Youth Sport System

Based on the tenets of self-determination theory, the Sport Motivation Scale-II is an 18-item instrument that consists of six subscales. Despite the numerous studies that have been conducted using self-determination theory in organized youth sport contexts, measures available to assess self-determined forms of motivation across socio-cultural contexts are scarce. This is particularly important because there are socio-cultural contexts that have diverse reward systems, competitive structures, and convey different social norms, values, and cultural nuances. The existence of measures available to assess self-determined forms of motivation across socio-cultural contexts may enable the development of a robust knowledge base that informs research-to-practice partnerships and potential changes across a complex youth sport landscape. The present study aimed to validate the factor structure of the Sport Motivation Scale-II with a sample of 239 Portuguese adolescent athletes. The participants’ ages ranged between 12 and 17 years old ( M = 14.39; SD = 1.35). Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to achieve the aim of this study. Findings showed that the six-factor model used by the authors presents a good adjustment concerning sports participants’ level of motivation toward sports practice. Moving forward, the Sport Motivation Scale-II may be used in future studies to help provide an understanding about athletes’ self-determination. Several practical and theoretical implications are provided.

A qualitative examination of parental mental health and well-being in youth sport

ABSTRACT Parents have multifaceted experiences as a result of their involvement in organised youth sport. Such experiences can have an influence on parents’ mental health and well-being. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of mental health and well-being among parents in relation to their involvement in organised youth sport. Eighteen Australian youth sport parents (12 mothers, 6 fathers; Mage = 47 years, SD = 4.74) participated in individual semi-structured interviews to better understand how their youth sport-specific roles and behaviours influence mental health and well-being. Following a descriptive thematic analysis, five themes were generated from the data: (a) sport as a platform for family unity; (b) cohesion and conflict between parents and other social agents; (c) requirements of youth sport and family equity; (d) interconnectedness of parent and child emotions in sport; and (e) sport as a context for self-improvement and parental validation. These findings provide meaningful insight with respect to how the youth sport environment, and parents’ roles within it, leads to positive and negative mental health experiences. We encourage applied scholars to consider the current findings when designing quality youth sport programmes that are tailored to all stakeholders (i.e., including parents).

O.4.5-2 Participation in organized and unorganized sports in adolescence: associations with physical activity levels in adulthood

Abstract Purpose Participation in organized youth sports (OYS) has been linked to higher levels of physical activity (PA) in adulthood. However, the longitudinal associations of OYS and PA compared to unorganized sports and non-participation have not been extensively studied. This study aims to explore the associations of both organized and unorganized sports in adolescence with PA levels in midlife. Methods Participants in this study were drawn from the on-going, population-based prospective Young Finns Study. Data from follow-ups conducted in the years 1980, 1983, 1986, and 1989 were utilized to divide the participants into groups of active OYS, active unorganized sports, and non-participants, separately at the ages of 9 (n = 548), 12 (n = 727), 15 (n = 752), and 18 (n = 767). The groups were formed according to self-reported frequency and intensity of leisure time PA and participation in sports club activities in adolescence. Accelerometer-derived PA (mean daily minutes of sedentary time [ST], light-intensity PA [LPA], and moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) in midlife was assessed in 2018-2020. Differences in adult PA between the youth PA groups were analyzed using analysis of covariance, separately in males and females. Results Compared to non-participants, boys who actively participated in OYS at age 9 had lower ST (mean difference [SE]: -38 [15], p = 0.045) and higher LPA (29 [12], p = 0.050) in midlife. No significant group differences were observed for girls at age 9 or for either sex at age 12 or 15, or for boys at age 18. In girls at age 18, significant group differences were found in MVPA in midlife in favor of both organized and unorganized sports compared to non-participants (15 [3], p < 0.001; 8 [3], p = 0.014, respectively). Conclusions Active participation in organized sports in boys at age 9 and active participation in both organized and unorganized sports in girls at age 18 associated with higher levels of physical activity in midlife. These findings suggest that promoting both types of sports participation in adolescence may contribute to the development of a physically active lifestyle across the life course. Support/Funding Source The work was supported by the Ministry of Education and Culture.

Knowledge and Attitudes of Concussion Reporting Behavior Intentions in Parents of Youth Recreational Football Players

ABSTRACT Purpose: This study: (1) Described the knowledge, attitudes, and reported behavior intentions of young recreational football players’ parents toward concussion. (2) Investigated associations of the previous variables with parent demographics. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional design utilized an online platform to survey parents of children (8–14 yrs.) in three youth football leagues in the southern United States. Demographics collected included items such as sex or concussion history. Knowledge was assessed via true/false items, with higher scores (0–20) representing greater concussion understanding. 4-point Likert scales were used to describe parents attitudes (1 = not at all, 4 = very much), confidence in intended recognition/reporting (1 = not-confident, 4 = extremely confident), and agreement with intended reporting behaviors (1 = strong- disagreement, 4 = strong-agreement). Descriptive statistics were calculated for demographics. Mann–Whitney U test or Kruskal–Wallis Tests examined survey responses across demographics. Results: Respondents (n = 101) were primarily female (64.4%), white (81.2%), and participated in contact sport (83.2%). Parents averaged 15.9 ± 1.4 on concussion knowledge, with only 34.7% (n = 35) of parents scoring > 17/20. Statements that received the lowest average agreement (3.29/4) regarding reporting intent were related to emotional symptoms. Some parents (n = 42, 41.6%) reported low confidence in recognizing symptoms of a concussion in their child. Parent demographics did not have clinically significant associations with survey responses, with 6/7 demographic variables resulting in no statistical significance (p > .05). Conclusions: Although one-third of parents attained high knowledge scores, several reported low confidence in recognizing concussion symptoms in their children. Parents scored lower in agreement with removing their child from play when concussion symptoms were subjective. Youth sports organizations providing concussion education to parents should consider these results when revising their materials.

The Impact of COVID-19 Restrictions on Youth Athlete Mental Health: A Narrative Review.

We discuss current research on the mental health effects of COVID-19 sports restrictions on youth athletes, highlighting the largest problems, as well as how organizations can help youth athletes by preparing for and responding to these problems. Millions of children and adolescents worldwide participate in organized sports, which has significant physical and mental health benefits. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic triggered large-scale, public restrictions that forced the closure and cancelation of organized youth sports across the world. Sports cancelations not only removed these protective benefits, but also worsened the mental health of youth athletes who were no longer able to participate in their sports. Youth athletes are even more vulnerable than adults to the negative mental health effects of sports restrictions. The unexpected loss of sports from COVID-19 restrictions disrupted these youths' athletic identities and worsened youth athlete depression, anxiety, anger, sleep, and quality of life. Restrictions particularly affected certain high-risk subpopulations of youth athletes including females, high school upperclassmen, those from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and those from team sports. Sports organizations could limit the negative mental health impacts of future sports cancelations by implementing at-home training opportunities, remote check-ins with teammates, discussions about athletic identity with coaches and sports psychology professionals, and mindfulness skill-building.

Youth Sport Participation Trends Across Europe: Implications for Policy and Practice

ABSTRACT Purpose: Despite the known health and wellbeing benefits of taking part in sport for children and adolescents, it is reported that sports participation declines during adolescence. The purpose of this study was to explore current organized youth sport participation rates across Europe for both males and females and update current understanding. Method: Sport participation registration data was collected for 18 sports from 27 countries. In total, participation data was collected from over 5 million young people from Under 8s (U8s) to Under 18s (U18s). Differences in the participation rates between age categories were investigated using a generalized linear mixed effects model. Results: Overall, males were four times more likely to participate in organised youth sport than females’ participants, with this trend apparent across all age categories and across most sports. There was a significant decrease across sports in participation rates for males during adolescence from U14-U16 and U16-U18. There was a significant decrease in participation rates for females from U14-U16 for most sports except but an increase in participation rates from U16-U18 for 12 out of 18 sports. Soccer (1262%), wrestling (391%) and boxing (209%) were the sports that had greater male sport participation rates. In contrast, dance sports (86%) and volleyball (63%) had more female participants than males. This research shows male sports participation is significantly greater than female in youth sport across Europe. Conclusion: Furthermore, findings showed that for both male and female participants, participation rates increased from U8-U14 for the majority of sports followed by reduced participation rates during adolescence. Findings of this research can be used by national governing bodies and sporting organizations to inform youth sport participation initiatives.

A just organized youth sport

ABSTRACT Organized youth sport has become a prominent activity in Western societies, one around which myriad families structure their daily lives. Despite its popularity, or rather because of it, youth sport is besotted with complex problems. One distinctive set of problems pertains to children’s opportunities to benefit from engagement in sport. Such problems require a reflection on the conditions of justice. The goal of this paper is to explore ethical guidelines to make youth sport more just. The paper begins by characterizing childhood, youth, and youth sport. Then, it articulates considerations of justice in youth sport. Together, these sections provide a basis to formulate the general features of a just youth sport. What emerges is a vision of youth sport that the adults involved in it should emphasize and implement if their young charges, and youth sport, are to flourish, as well as a novel approach to formulating and justifying normative criteria to make youth sport more just.

Missing Out, as Well: The Absence of Youth Sports and Its Effect on Parents During the COVID-19 Global Pandemic

In December of 2019, COVID-19 began spreading globally. As a result, many youth sport organizations were forced to halt programming. While unfortunate, this imposed disengagement from youth sport provided an opportunity to explore what youth sport means to parents, being that this was the first time many were without it. As such, researchers aimed to explore the attitudes and perceptions of youth sport parents regarding their child’s sport participation in its absence. Semistructured interviews were conducted to explore these perceptions, and three themes were constructed through thematic analysis. Findings suggest that sport parents miss their experiences as “live-in” sports fans of their child’s sport participation due to the absence of their spectator experiences, social opportunities, and feelings of success, which drive their motivation for continued involvement. Understanding parental motivations to support youth sport participation may lead future researchers to uncovering the influences of parental behavior in the youth sport context.

The logic behind the initiatives of national governing bodies in Flanders to improve organised youth sport: A theory-based evaluation approach

ABSTRACT Regular involvement in organised youth sport boosts the likelihood of lifelong sport participation. However, increasing dropout rates in sport clubs and alarming levels of young people not meeting physical activity guidelines may suggest that the organised sport sector’s efforts have been insufficient to date. This situation calls for evaluation of the applicable youth sport policy to determine how organised youth sport is intended to operate and to articulate whether and how the policy achieves its stated goals. Accordingly, this paper identifies and analyses initiatives of national governing bodies (NGBs) to increase participation rates and improve the quality of youth sport in their affiliated sport clubs, using Flanders as a case study. A theory-based evaluation was applied working with qualitative data derived from extensive document analysis and five focus groups with representatives of 19 Flemish NGBs. The results reveal that the focus of NGBs is narrowed to increasing participation rates of youth members and building a sound organisational structure in sport clubs, rather than investing in the quality of provision to maximise enjoyment. Furthermore, most of the initiatives lack a clearly articulated strategy and are based on assumed mechanisms, rather than on prior understanding of effective processes. This study adds to the scarce literature on sport policy evaluation research by mapping out NGBs’ youth sport initiatives and using a theoretical lens through which to evaluate them. For practitioners, the results demonstrate the usefulness of a logic model to evaluate youth sport policy and to optimise the effectiveness of the initiatives employed.

The Role of a Performance Coach on Athlete's Loyalty: A Case Study of Youth Soccer Players in San Diego and Orange County

The definition of coach effectiveness is ambiguous, with several perceptions on creating an engaging learning environment. Thus, understanding why athletes remain with their respective organizations and recognizing the impact of their coach is essential to increasing retention rates. This study will review existing literature on coach effectiveness and the coach-athlete relationship impacting athlete engagement while mining primary data from elite academy soccer clubs in San Diego and Orange County. The results provide valuable information on athletes' and parents' decision(s) on what club they want to join based on the coaches' behaviors using a qualitative analysis approach. In addition, the results highlight correlations between the athletes' and parents' views of events. The study contributes' to providing practical information for youth sports organizations, who will be able to implement the recommendations of this study to enhance their coaches' education and create a positive coach-athlete experience.

Updating Policy Within Youth Sport Organizations Through Problem-Based Learning

Updating Policy Within Youth Sport Organizations Through Problem-Based Learning

Effectiveness of wearable technology to optimize youth soccer players’ off-training behaviour and training responses: a parallel group randomized trial

ABSTRACT Background Although youth soccer players meet and exceed the weekly physical activity (PA) guidelines also exhibit high off-training sedentary behaviour (SB) levels. Recent evidence indicated that low PA preceding training leads to decreased PA intensity in soccer practice and that SB impairs sports performance and recovery. Thus, a parallel group randomized trial examined the effect of activity wristbands on young players’ off-training PA and SB profiles; assessed the added value of wearable wristbands with PA warnings; and investigated whether manipulating off-training PA can affect the players’ training responses. Methods Thirty-two adolescent soccer players (16.1 ± 0.9 years old) were monitored during weekdays for two weeks (interspersed with one week). Players were randomly assigned to a reminder to move (REM) and a non-reminder to move group (nREM). The REM wore an activity wristband (Fitbit Charge 2) with PA warnings in the last week of research, while the nREM wore identical monitors without PA feedback. Throughout the study, off-training PA was assessed using tri-axial accelerometers, and training responses were analysed using wearable inertial monitoring units. Gardner-Altman estimation plots and a Fisher’s Exact Test of Independence estimated each group’s off-training PA changes between the monitored weeks. Complementary, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) quantified the effect of Fitbit wristband configurations (with a reminder to move or without a reminder to move) on the off-training PA and soccer training external load variables. The independent variable group had two levels (REM and nREM). The off-training PA and training load values collected in the first week were introduced in the model as a covariate, the groups were designated fixed factors and the off-training PA and training load from the third week were the dependent variables. The team was also included as a covariate and the between-group differences post-intervention were adjusted for baseline and team. Results Interestingly, results showed that different wearable wristbands did not influence the players’ off-training PA profiles (p > 0.05). Concomitantly, no differences were observed in training responses (p > 0.05). Conclusion Findings emphasize the importance of health and youth sports organizations in developing newer approaches for promoting healthier lifestyles, beyond training practices, with potentially favourable implications for sports performance.

Organized Youth Sports Trajectories and Adult Health Outcomes: The Young Finns Study

This study identified the trajectories of organized youth sports over 9 years in youths aged 9-18 years and examined whether the trajectories predicted physical activity, sedentary behavior, and obesity in midlife. Self-reported organized youth sports trajectories were identified for participants between 1980 and 1989 (N=3,474). Accelerometer-derived physical activity was quantified for participants (n=1,349) in 2018-2020. Sociodemographic, physical activity, and TV viewing data were collected through questionnaires either at baselines or follow-up. Adult BMI was calculated to clarify obesity. Associations of organized youth sports trajectories with adult physical activity, sedentary behavior, and obesity were evaluated using mixture models, which were stratified by sex and conducted in 2022. Three organized youth sports trajectories were identified for boys and girls (sustained high-sports participation, 12.0%/7.5%; sustained moderate-sports participation, 14.0%/13.3%; and low-sports/nonparticipation, 74.0%/79.2%). Boys sustaining both moderate- and high-sports participation had higher levels of adult self-reported physical activity (β=0.59, p=0.007; β=0.69, p<0.001) than low-sports/nonparticipating boys. Girls sustaining both moderate- and high-sports participation accumulated more total physical activity (β=113.4, p=0.009; β=144.3, p=0.002), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (β=7.86, p=0.016; β=14.01, p<0.001), step counts (β=1,020, p=0.003; β=1,045, p=0.005), and self-reported physical activity (β=0.79, p<0001; β=0.63, p=0.003) in midlife than their low-sports/nonparticipating counterparts. Girls sustaining moderate-sports participation accumulated more light-intensity physical activity (β=19.79, p=0.012) and less sedentary time (β= -27.65, p=0.002), and those sustaining high-sports participation had lower obesity prevalence (OR=0.41, p=0.009) 40 years later than low-sports/nonparticipating girls. Sustained participation in organized youth sports is independently predictive of physical activity patterns, sedentary time, and obesity in midlife, especially in girls, thus contributing to the development of a healthy and active lifestyle across the life course.

Write It Out: Examining Recreational Youth Sport Parent Emotions Through an Expressive Writing Exercise

Youth sport parents experience an array of emotions as part of their child’s youth sport experience. This may include emotions related to watching their child play, supporting their child’s emotions, or simply related to daily parenting responsibilities. This research examined youth sport parent emotions through an expressive writing exercise. Twelve parents completed a total of 32 expressive writing exercises. In each exercise, parents were asked to write about their emotions as a youth sport parent. Quantitative analysis with Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC; Pennebaker et al., 2015) software and qualitative thematic analysis were employed to analyze writings. Results indicate that though parents experienced both positive and negative emotions, negative emotions were most common and salient. Thematic analysis resulted in six themes, including one theme related to positive emotions (happiness for child experience), and five themes related to negative emotions: 1) general stress and negativity, 2) responsibilities, 3) role as parent, 4) coach, and 5) performance. Results also lead to practical implications for park and recreation administrators. First, as substantial stress is related to the time and financial responsibilities associated with sport parenting, organizations may wish to seek ways to support parents including through scholarship funds, and facilitating communication and duty sharing among parents. Parent education programs may also be a way to help parents navigate their own emotions related to parenting roles. Coaches were also a source of negative emotions for parents, though not always for the same reasons. Youth sport organizations can facilitate coach-parent communication to ensure that parent-coach goals are aligned, and provide training for coaches in both sport-specific skills and positive youth development. In addition to facilitating coach-parent communication, organizations may also encourage child-parent communication related to goals. This could include email communications with exercises designed to encourage specific conversations about goals of youth sport participation. Each of these implications is tied directly to negative emotions expressed by parents as part of this research. Assisting parents with these emotions will improve the experience for both the parent and will likely enable the youth participant to have a more positive experience as well.

Parent decision-making regarding youth sport participation during the COVID-19 pandemic.

PurposeTo describe youth sport participation behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic as reported by parents of youth sport athletes, to examine the association of family demographics with the likelihood of children resuming sports, and to qualitatively report the factors influencing parental decision-making regarding youth sport participation during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsA national sample of parents of youth athletes from across the United States (n=236, age: 39.2±8.1 years, 57.2% female) were recruited to complete an online questionnaire by Qualtrics Online Samples (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) using a combination of actively managed, double-opt-in market research panels. The questionnaire focused on changes in child sport participation and family finances as a result of COVID-19 and included both close-ended and open-ended questions.ResultsMost parents (63.1%) reported the time their children spent participating in organized youth sports had decreased because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Three-quarters of parents (75.5%) reported that it was likely that their children would fully resume participating in organized youth sports within the next year. Parents whose financial situation was worsened by COVID-19 were less likely to report that their children would resume sports in the upcoming year. Three domains related to parental decision-making emerged from the open-ended responses: safety, fear, and normalcy.ConclusionsUnderstanding the factors influencing changes in youth sport participation during the pandemic can allow systems to implement strategies for safe participation in youth sport and physical activity among children. Encouraging participation in outdoor sports with appropriate safety precautions such as masking, social distancing, and hygiene may reduce fear of participation among parents.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10900-022-01078-4.