Young Foreign Language Learners Research Articles

The development of English language connected speech perception skills: an empirical study on Chinese EFL children.

Connected speech processes (CSPs) occur randomly in everyday conversations of native speakers; however, such phonological variations can bring about challenges for non-native listeners. Looking at CSP literature, there seems to be very few studies that involved young foreign language learners. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the development of connected speech perception skills by focusing on 201 9- to 12-year-old Chinese EFL children. It also incorporated systematic error analysis to further probe into the specific perceptual difficulties. The results indicate that: (1) Despite a significantly ascending trend for the overall growth of perception skills, no significant differences were found between 11 and 12 year olds in elision and contraction, which suggests that the developmental trend varied depending on different CSP types; (2) Although random errors decreased with age, the number of lexicon and syntax errors gradually increased, and the distribution of perceptual errors shifted from the level of words and syllables to that of phonemes; (3) The primary types of errors resulting in the perception difficulties for elision and contraction were consonant errors, grammatical errors and morphology errors. Ergo, this study enhances the understanding of connected speech perception among EFL children and provides some implications for EFL/ESL listening instructions.

Vocabulary learning in Finnish early foreign language learning textbooks

Abstract Vocabulary acquisition of young foreign language learners is an understudied topic. This study examines how early foreign language textbooks in Finland present and practise vocabulary. Moreover, studying textbooks is essential as they guide teachers’ actions and pupils’ perceptions of what is central in learning and how one should learn. We examined five different textbooks used in Finland for early foreign language learning. The languages covered were English, French, German, Swedish and Spanish. We analysed how the textbooks presented vocabulary using Thornbury’s (2002) classification as a basis. In particular, we looked at how the books took into account pupils’ existing linguistic resources, how they introduced and attempted to consolidate new vocabulary, what aspects of vocabulary knowledge were emphasised, what the role of formulaic sequences was, and if there were differences between the textbooks of different languages. The results showed that even though the textbooks had versatile exercises, there was a lack of progression and consolidating activities. Moreover, it seems that the textbooks do not largely aim at learner agency or translanguaging for vocabulary learning. Therefore, the examined textbooks for early foreign language learning in Finland are not fully in line with current understanding of vocabulary learning and language learning in general.

Mindsets as predictors for Chinese young language learners’ negative emotions in online language classes during the pandemic: mediating role of emotion regulation

ABSTRACT With a post-pandemic churn gaining steam, foreign language (FL) learning and teaching are becoming increasingly challenging. This study investigated young FL learners’ language mindsets, negative emotions, emotion regulation, and their relations in online FL classes during the Covid-19 pandemic. An altogether 640 young Chinese FL learners aged between 11 and 19 from a snowball sampling were enrolled and surveyed. Three major findings were obtained. First, the participants overall reported a higher growth mindset toward their FL learning and were experiencing a medium magnitude of negative emotions in online FL classes, with the feelings of shame, anxiety, and boredom being strongest, followed by anger and hopelessness. They demonstrated a relatively high level of emotion regulation when learning the FL online. Second, the growth language mindset (significantly) negatively and the fixed language mindset significantly and positively predicted the participants’ negative emotions in online classes. Third, a ‘growth language mindset – emotion regulation – emotion’ pattern emerged in the data, with the emotion regulation mediating the predictive effects of the participants’ growth language mindset on negative emotions (boredom and anger) in online FL learning. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research were also discussed.

Impact of emergency remote teaching on young foreign language learners in Poland

Impact of emergency remote teaching on young foreign language learners in Poland

MODEL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE EXPLORATORY (FLEX) PROGRAM FOR ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Teaching English for elementary schools in Indonesia has been taught since 1994, however, the quality of the learning is still far from satisfactory results. Therefore, teaching English on this level should be developed meaningfully by promoting the learning contexts effectively because it directly influences the students’ competence and attitudes toward the target language on the next levels. This is a library research article with the aim to design a model of a language program conducted by analyzing 10 relevant articles through library research tools. The instruments of this research were observation sheets to organize the data from the articles and documentary analysis was applied to analyze the data. Foreign Language Exploratory Program (FLEX) is a form of alternative language program used to facilitate the students to have a better understanding of world languages on their ages. Therefore, the question to be addressed in this paper is “How is the appropriate model of a FLEX Program to boost motivation in learning English for elementary level?” The discussion of such a question is worthy to do to produce an interesting model that is relevant with the young foreign language learners since the young learners are parts of global citizen in the future life.

Online Learning of Students with Special Needs: Teachers’ Perspectives

This research was an attempt to find an effective vocabulary-teaching method order for Iraqi young foreign language learners. An experiment was conducted during regular Iraqi class sessions for seven weeks, from April 13th to May 29th, 2019. In this experiment, two vocabulary-teaching method orders, explicit-first order and implicit-first order, were compared for effectiveness, using a within-group design. The participants of the groups were fourth graders at Al-Hadi Primary School in Babil Governorate, Iraq. Each group had almost thirty students. They had the same background when it came to learning English. Flashcards were used for the explicit vocabulary-teaching method, while stories were used for the implicit vocabulary teaching method. For the first three weeks, Group 1 was taught English vocabulary using the explicit method at the beginning of each session, followed by the implicit method. On the other hand, during each session, Group 2 was taught using the implicit method first, followed by the explicit method. Both groups had a one-week break in week four. After the break, the orders of vocabulary teaching methods were switched for each group for the next three weeks. The amount of words that the students could recall was measured by a multiple choice test at the end of each session. As a result of the experiment, slight differences were found between the two orders and two groups, but it is difficult to say which order is more effective than the other one because the difference was not remarkable. Rather, it is now assumed that the homeroom teacher's influence and the students' personalities, as well as environmental and affective factors, could be more critical to students' foreign language learning.

Creativity, challenge and culture in the languages classroom: a response to the Ofsted Curriculum Research Review

ABSTRACT In this opinion piece we problematise foreign language (FL) learning curricula which are rigidly based on carefully sequenced input and constrained learning opportunities. Whilst an important component in language learning, language knowledge constitutes more than phonics vocabulary and grammar. Our stance is premised on the understanding that, whether novice or expert, an FL learner is not a ‘tabula rasa’. In other words, every learner will have existing linguistic, social and cultural knowledge and skills, as well as cognitive and developing metacognitive resources which have the potential to both support and frustrate the language learning process. This, in turn, problematises a structured approach to teaching and learning which rests on carefully sequenced input, constrained learning opportunities and minimal exposure to unfamiliar language. We propose that FL curricula should be centred around opportunities to actively communicate in the language, supported by rich and plentiful input. We suggest that, to foster emotional engagement and intrinsic motivation, young FL learners should engage with cultural artefacts and authentic content in the target language. In addition, learning activities which offer both challenge and enough scaffolding to experience success are likely to support self-efficacy which is linked to motivation.

Language Play with Formulas in an EFL Classroom

Language learners’ play with language can be a useful and effective tool for learning. Since language play generally involves deviating from the norms, one potential source for it can be multiword units of language known as formulaic sequences. This study is informed by sociocultural perspective and Bakhtinian dialogism and investigates language play with sequences among young foreign language learners in a classroom context. A class of 11 pupils (aged 9 to 11), in Iran, was observed and video recorded for 16 × 90 min sessions. Across recordings, episodes where pupils were engaged in language play were identified and analyzed qualitatively to document patterns of use and participation. Additionally, formulaic sequences were identified based on pre-established criteria. Results revealed that the young learners of the present study were recurrently engaged in different types of language play with formulaic sequences such as playing with sounds, manipulating some units of sequences or using a sequence to play a role. The data provide examples illustrating the role of language play in generating occasions for learners to practice, repeat, explore, and interact with the language in a more lively and low stress environment.

Formulaic time buyers for young foreign language learners

Abstract Multiword units of language, known as formulaic sequences, are pervasive and essential in communication (Wray, 2008). Although issues related to formulaicity have been under investigation in a number of research studies (e.g. Conklin & Schmitt, 2008; Wood, 2006), the present study is different in investigating the functions of formulaic sequences in the oral language production of young learners in the context of English as a foreign language. A class of 11 students (aged 9 to 11) was observed and video recorded for 16 sessions (90 minutes per session). Following transcription of selected speech samples, formulaic sequences were identified based on pre-established criteria. Analysis enabled categorisation of a range of functions for formulaic sequences in learners’ oral language production. Results revealed evidence that formulaic sequences performed a variety of roles in the learners’ language production. These sequences helped young language learners to improve their fluency, to economize effort on processing and also to buy time for processing. A significant novel finding of this study was evidence that language users might introduce dis-fluency in the production of their sequences in order to buy time for further processing.

Reflecting on assessing young foreign language learners

Reflecting on assessing young foreign language learners

Does the Simple View of Reading Explain Korean Elementary EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension?

Numerous studies have supported the simple view of reading by showing the significant predictive roles of oral language comprehension ability and decoding skills in the reading comprehension of monolinguals and second language learners. However, little is known about its applicability to young foreign language learners who do not have much access to the target language and literacy input outside the school and especially those whose first and second languages are typologically different. This study was designed to examine the contribution of English oral language comprehension ability and decoding skills to the reading comprehension of fifth-grade Korean EFL learners. In doing so, the indirect effects of oral language ability and phonological awareness were also considered, and English reading fluency and Korean reading comprehension abilities were controlled for. The findings not only support the simple view of reading but also highlight the indirect effects of oral language comprehension ability and phonological awareness on reading comprehension abilities via the effects of decoding skills.

Testing young foreign language learners’ reading comprehension: Exploring the effects of working memory, grade level, and reading task

Extensive research has demonstrated the impact of working memory (WM) on first language (L1) reading comprehension across age groups (Peng et al., 2018), and on foreign language (FL) reading comprehension of adults and older adolescents (Linck et al., 2014). Comparatively little is known about the effect of WM on young FL readers’ comprehension, and even less within testing contexts. Young FL readers are still developing their L1 reading skills and general cognitive skills (e.g., attentional regulation abilities). Completing FL reading tests might be particularly taxing on their WM, and differences in WM capacity – as well as other learner and task characteristics – might create construct-irrelevant variance in test performance.In this study, we investigate the effects of WM, grade level, and reading task on young learners’ FL reading test performances. Ninety-four young English language learners (Grades 6–7) in Hungary completed the TOEFL®Junior™ Comprehensive’s reading test and a WM test battery. Our mixed-effects model predicted significantly higher comprehension accuracy among learners with higher WM capacity, and among learners in Grade 7 compared to learners in Grade 6. Reading task differences were not associated with significant comprehension accuracy differences. We discuss the implications of our findings for testing young learners’ FL reading comprehension.

Improving reference cohesion in young EFL learners’ collaboratively written narratives: Is there a role for reformulation?

This article reports an empirical study in which we explore the role played by reformulation as a written corrective feedback technique on the use of reference cohesion in the collaboratively written narratives of young foreign language learners. The study was carried out with 11-to-12-year-old low proficiency pairs divided into a reformulation (RG) and a control group (CG), all of whom engaged in two multi-stage writing and feedback tasks over a three-month period. Features of reference cohesion were examined in four sets of narrative picture-story texts written by all the children before and after a treatment period during which the RG pairs completed a weekly writing task and received reformulated feedback, which they compared with their original drafts. The CG pairs also performed the weekly writing task and self-edited their texts. Results showed that the feedback proved useful in significantly promoting the accurate use of pronominal reference and sequence markers in the L2 by RG pairs and in contributing to a significant decrease in the misuse of articles in comparison to the CG. These findings are discussed and conclusions drawn for the role of reformulation in fostering cohesion in children’s L2 writing.

The Use of ICT in an English Classroom

The paper presents the results of a study on the attitudes of young Slovenian foreign language learners. The survey was conducted in five public elementary schools from different regions of the Republic of Slovenia. Four hundred six pupils aged 7 to 12 years (grades 2 to 4) declared their willingness to participate. One hundred thirty-eight of them or 34% (4th grade) were asked whether they used ICT during English lessons, homework, and vocabulary study. A quantitative research paradigm using crosstabs was conducted. In the case of gender, the results of the Chi-square test show a statistically significant difference in attitudes towards the use of mobile phones during English lessons and homework, while no statistically significant differences were found for the variable age. Such results should motivate language teachers and policymakers to adapt their teaching methods and allow for a careful use of ICT in language teaching.

Dynamic assessment of phonological awareness in young foreign language learners: predictability and modifiability

Dynamic assessment has been recognized as a nonbiased approach to evaluating language learning potential among children who do not have equal access to the target language. However, it remains to be determined whether the graduated prompting approach of dynamic assessment is feasible in foreign language (FL) learning contexts as FL learners may not benefit from the small number of prompts administered in a single test session. The study explored the feasibility of a dynamic assessment of phonological awareness by examining its predictability of spelling performance in young FL learners and its potential to reveal learners’ modifiability in phonological awareness. Fourth-grade learners of English as a FL (N = 50) took two phonological awareness measures (dynamic and static) and two FL spelling tests (real words and pseudowords), along with a questionnaire of prior FL learning experience. Results showed that dynamic phonological awareness uniquely predicted performance in both spelling tests after controlling for static phonological awareness and FL learning experience. Performance on phonological awareness improved from the first to the second half of the dynamic measure but not in the static measure. These findings suggest that a dynamic measure holds promise for enhancing prediction of spelling performance and evaluating modifiability of phonological awareness in young FL learners.

Domestic Encouragement for Young Foreign Language Learners in Slovenia/Domaće poticanje mladih učenika stranog jezika u Sloveniji

AbstractThe main aim of the present research was to determine the kinds of encouragement that young learners receive at home from their parents for foreign language (FL) learning, and highlight any differences between the domestic environment and foreign language learning in terms of the socio-economic status of the family. Furthermore, the study offers some general recommendations to parents and primary school authorities to encourage FL learning in the domestic environment, thereby avoiding socio-economic differences.The study was conducted on a sample of ninth-grade pupils (14 years of age) attending Slovene primary schools (N = 600). A questionnaire with the closed-type questions was designed in accordance with the measurement characteristics (validity, reliability, objectivity). The data were analysed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results show that in general, parents almost never or rarely encourage their children in foreign language learning. A detailed analysis of the results, however, shows that there are statistically significant differences in the support given to foreign language learning in terms of the socio-economic status of the family (e.g., through books, literature, DVDs, songs in foreign languages, homework, language courses abroad, travelling). Parents with a higher level of education support their children in learning foreign languages more than parents with a lower level of education.Key words: socio-economic environment; foreign language learning; parental involvement; primary school.---SažetakGlavni je cilj ovog istraživanja bio utvrditi vrste poticaja koje mladi učenici koji uče strani jezik (SJ) primaju kod kuće, a koje im pružaju njihovi roditelji, te naglasiti razlike između domaćeg okruženja i učenja stranog jezika u smislu socijalno-ekonomskog statusa obitelji. Nadalje, istraživanje nudi neke opće preporuke roditeljima i autoritetima u osnovnoj školi da potaknu učenje stranog jezika u domaćem okruženju te izbjegnu socijalno-ekonomske razlike.Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku učenika devetih razreda (starost 14 godina) koji pohađaju slovenske osnovne škole (N=600). Upitnik s pitanjima zatvorenog tipa osmišljen je u skladu s mjernim karakteristikama (valjanost, pouzdanost, objektivnost). Podaci su analizirani upotrebom deskriptivne i inferencijalne statistike. Rezultati pokazuju kako roditelji gotovo nikad ne potiču ili vrlo rijetko potiču svoju djecu na učenje stranog jezika. Međutim, detaljna analiza rezultata pokazala je kako postoje statistički značajne razlike u potpori učenja stranog jezika povezane sa socijalno-ekonomskim statusom obitelji (npr. knjige, literatura, DVD, pjesme na stranim jezicima, domaća zadaća, tečajevi stranih jezika u inozemstvu, putovanje). Visokoobrazovni roditelji potiču svoju djecu na učenje stranih jezika više od roditelja nižeg stupnja obrazovanja. Ključne riječi: socijalno-ekonomsko okruženje; učenje stranog jezika; uključenost roditelja; osnovna škola.

Resolving referential ambiguity across ambiguous situations in young foreign language learners

ABSTRACTFirst language learners can track word-referent co-occurrence information across situations and evaluate co-occurrence probabilities across situations to determine the best-of-fit mappings. However, cross-situational word learning can be difficult to foreign language learners, because in addition to aggregating information across situations, they have to build robust representations for foreign-sounding words. In Experiment 1, third-grade Mandarin-speaking children learned four English word-referent pairs in two conditions, varying in within-trial ambiguity. In one condition, information about word-referent association was determinable across trials but not within a trial. In the other, word-referent association within a trial was inferable. In Experiment 2, participants learned words in a condition where referential ambiguity across trials, though not within a trial, was reduced by successive presentation of certain word-referent pairs. The results revealed that participants learned more word-referent pairs than expected by chance. Reducing ambiguity within a trial facilitated word mapping and word retention (Experiment 1), but reducing ambiguity across trials did not (Experiment 2). Across two experiments, word mapping and retention performance was associated with phonological awareness, whether measured in children's first language or a foreign language, but not with digit span, suggesting that success in cross-situational word learning in a foreign language rests on specification of word forms.

Introducing IoT and Wearable Technologies into Task-Based Language Learning for Young Children

In the last few years, in an attempt to further motivate students to learn a foreign language, there has been an increasing interest in task-based teaching techniques, which emphasize communication and the practical use of language, thus moving away from the repetitive grammar-translation methods. Within this approach, the significance of situating foreign language learners in scenarios where they can meaningfully learn has become a major priority for many educators. This approach is particularly relevant in the context of teaching foreign languages to young children, who need to be introduced to a new language by means of very concrete vocabulary, which is facilitated by the use of objects that they can handle and see. In this study, we investigate the benefits of using wearable and Internet-of-Things (IoT) technologies in streamlining the creation of such realistic task-based language learning scenarios. We show that the use of these technologies will prove beneficial by freeing the instructors of having to keep records of the tasks performed by each student during the class session. Instead, instructors can focus their efforts on creating a friendly environment and encouraging students to participate. Our study sets up a basis for showing the great benefits of using wearable and IoT technologies in streamlining 1) the creation of realistic scenarios in which young foreign language learners can feel comfortable engaging in chat and becoming better prepared for social interaction in a foreign language, and 2) the acquisition and processing of performance metrics.

A case study of Readers Theatre in a primary Norwegian EFL class

This article presents research on a case study of the use of Readers Theatre (RT), a group reading aloud activity in which a text is divided into small segments, in a sixth grade English as a Foreign Language (EFL) class in Norway. A mixed ability class of 27 readers, divided into groups of five to six pupils, rehearsed and performed fairy tales adapted for RT. The aims were to find out how the teachers and pupils experienced RT and how it influenced the development of the pupils’ reading, motivation and confidence. Data collection was through two teacher interviews, post-project pupil journals, lesson observations and video recordings of the first rehearsals and performances of three of the groups. Gains were recorded in pupils’ pronunciation, word recognition and fluency, especially among the struggling learners in the class. Gains were also recorded in pupils’ motivation and confidence to read. Both the cognitive and affective gains support research on RT among young learners in first language contexts and add to the sparse research on RT among young foreign language learners.

When Language Experience Fails to Explain Word Reading Development: Early Cognitive and Linguistic Profiles of Young Foreign Language Learners

Although language experience is a key factor in successful foreign language (FL) learning, many FL learners fail to achieve performance levels that were predicted on the basis of their FL experience. This retrospective study investigated early cognitive and linguistic correlates of learning English as a foreign language (FL) in a group of Mandarin‐speaking elementary students who, at Grade 5, showed discrepancies between actual FL word reading attainment and attainment predicted on the basis of FL experience that had been available to them until Grade 3. Based on the residual score of regressing FL word reading against FL experience at one standard deviation below and above the mean, participants were grouped into overachievers, achievers performing at expected levels, and underachievers. The three cohorts were compared on learner characteristics, including lexical‐level (phonological processing and morphological awareness), text‐level (syntactic and contextual bootstrapping), and rote word learning abilities measured in Grade 3 and Grade 4. Compared with achievers performing to expectation, underachievers were characterized by poorer performance in lexical‐level abilities and rote word learning; overachievers were characterized by one superior lexical‐level ability (i.e., morphological awareness) and superior rote word learning. The three groups did not differ in either of the text‐level abilities. The results suggest that FL learning can be significantly constrained by limitations in lower level processing capacities in some learners despite adequate FL experience.