Young Dual Language Learners Research Articles

Toward more motivationally-supportive reading interventions: Learning from young DLLs’ perceptions of English-only programmes

How willing to participate in supplemental reading intervention programs are young dual language learners (DLLs)? Here we employ a qualitative case study design to consider two kindergarten and one first-grade DLLs’ motivation for doing reading tasks within a school-based, pull-out, English-only, reading intervention. Focal children’s motivation-related perceptions were elicited with two participatory interviews. Responses were compared with adults’ evaluations of the children’s behavioral engagement specific to the intervention. All DLLs shared their perceived benefits and costs of intervention involvement and made recommendations for improvement. Exercising autonomy within the intervention was found to be motivating for all children. The degree to which the intervention supported DLLs in sustaining valued connections with friends, family, and teachers also appeared to have a significant influence on motivation. The findings align with and extend existing literature that explores the reading motivation of older DLLs and young monolingual English speakers' motivations for reading within intervention programs. Collectively, findings imply that motivation theory and research, along with DLLs' own program-specific feedback, should inform intervention design and delivery.

Transforming a cemetery into a garden of languages: A justice-oriented, family-centered framework for cultivating early bilingualism and emergent biliteracy

One in three children enrolled in US early childhood programs is a dual language learner. While dual language learners have been the target of sweeping educational reforms under the guise of justice, these reforms—which pathologize dual language learners as problems to be remediated rather than assets to be developed—have largely ignored the priorities and experiences of young multilingual learners and their families. This historical omission of centering dual language learners in research, policy, and practice is unjust and has contributed to marginalization, homogenization, and linguistic erasure. Asian Americans, the second-largest group of dual language learners and the fastest-growing racial group in the USA, have remained an underexplored group of emergent bilinguals across early childhood research, practice, and policy. Thus, this article draws on the multilingual expertise of Asian American families of young dual language learners to portray how parents construct and navigate multiple knowledges, beliefs, and pedagogies of cultivating their children's dual language and literacy development. The key findings present a justice-centered framework that conceptualizes three cultivating practices across diverse spaces, borders, and time. Counterstories of planting, pollinating, and pruning position Asian immigrant parents as agentic gardeners of bilingualism and biliteracy, and interrogate the deficit paradigms that are too often placed on dual language learners to fit the narrow, monocultural, and monolingual definitions of school readiness. Centering Asian American families in generating theory and future research directions, this article envisions the future potentiality of early childhood education in pursuit of equity and transformative justice.

Embedding Executive Function Training Into Early Literacy Instruction for Dual Language Learners: A Pilot Study.

Early literacy skills are key indicators of future reading development for young dual language learners (DLLs). Additionally, emerging evidence indicates that young children's executive function (EF) skills are uniquely associated with elementary school reading outcomes (Ribner et al., 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the potential for embedding strategies to support EF development within evidence-based early language and literacy instruction for young DLLs. Sixty-nine preschool DLLs were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: a business-as-usual control group (BAU), a group that received early literacy instruction only (EL group), and a group that received early literacy instruction with embedded EF strategies (EL + EF group). The intervention focused on improving children's early literacy skills, including letter-name knowledge, phonological awareness, and oral language. Children completed assessments of early literacy and EF immediately before and after the intervention. The EL and EL + EF groups significantly outperformed the BAU control group for two early literacy outcomes, and effects of evidence-based early literacy instruction were strongest for children with poor EF skills. Results indicated that there were no significant differences between the EL + EF and EL groups. This pilot study indicated that there was no significant benefit to adding supports for EF skills within evidence-based early literacy instruction. Additional research is needed with larger samples to replicate observed effects. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.21834465.

Scenario-based mobile application design for young dual-language learners: evidence from factor analysis

Scenario-based mobile application design for young dual-language learners: evidence from factor analysis

Scenario-based mobile application design for young dual-language learners: evidence from factor analysis

Scenario-based mobile application design for young dual-language learners: evidence from factor analysis

Brief Report: An Exploratory Study of Young Dual Language Learners with Autism in a School-Based Intervention.

Due to core challenges in social communication experienced by many young children with autism, children on the spectrum who are also dual language learners (DLLs) may benefit from developmentally-appropriate language supports in school settings. The current study examined whether home language status moderated the effect of a play-based intervention, JASPER, delivered in the classroom, in children with autism. Fifty-nine preschool children with autism received JASPER over eight weeks. Children who received JASPER improved significantly more in their language skills from entry to exit than children in preschool as usual. Home language status moderated the effect of treatment on receptive language where children of diverse linguistic backgrounds made greater gains in receptive language.

Informal STEM Learning for Young Children: A Systematic Literature Review.

Studies show that children spend considerable time engaged in informal learning outside of educational settings. Informal educational settings such as museums can provide a variety of opportunities to engage children in STEM learning and scientific discovery, which can increase school readiness. Research has also determined an achievement gap in students from low socio-economic backgrounds and in students who are dual language learners. The literature shows that this gap begins even before children enter formal schooling. This systematic review serves two purposes: to explore the impact of informal STEM learning (ISL) on school readiness and to examine the relationship between ISL and children’s social-emotional development, particularly in children who are dual language learners. Using PRISMA procedures, we identified 36 eligible studies in this systematic review. The findings illuminate the important role of parents and/or caregivers and the quality of design and interventions used at ISL sites, such as museums and zoos, on how ISL can impact school readiness for preschoolers. No research was found to specifically address the impact of ISL on school readiness for children who are dual language learners. The implications from the findings suggest that further research is needed on ISL for young children, particularly considering the dearth in research on young dual language learners. The implications further suggest that parents, ISL site designers, facilitators, and educators can benefit from learning about the impact of ISL on school readiness.

Digital Picture Books for Young Dual Language Learners: Effects of Reading in the Second Language

Reading picture books in the first language (L1) before rereading them in the second language (L2) is assumed to be beneficial for young dual language learners (DLLs). This pilot study examined how sharing digital picture books in L1 or L2 at home before reading them in L2 in kindergarten affected L2 book-specific vocabulary learning and story comprehension. Participants were 14 three- and four-year-old children who spoke Polish at home and learned Norwegian as their second language. Even when DLLs were less advanced in L2, reading first in L1 was not advantageous for L2 vocabulary learning. Characteristics of caregiver–child interactions during the reading of digital picture books in L2 may explain why home reading in L2 was more beneficial than reading in L1 for less proficient young L2 learners.

Sociocultural dimensions of early dual language learning

Titone and Tiv's Systems Theory of Bilingualism aims to “urge cognitive scientists and neuroscientists to better embrace sociolinguistic and sociocultural experiences as part of their theoretical and empirical purview”. No stronger case for such a framework can be found than in studies of developmental aspects of bilingualism. In fact, inclusion of sociocultural variation has been a common feature of many studies of dual language learning for some time, especially in studies of pre-school and early-school-age learners (see Genesee, 2019, for a review). Young dual language learners – neonates, infants and toddlers, exposed to more than one language – begin life as virtual tabula rasa and are capable of learning any language with facility. As a result, their language acquisition is necessarily tied to the sociocultural parameters of the learning environments they are exposed to. Moreover, as Titone and Tiv emphasize, the immediate and ultimate purpose of language learning is communication. Thus, young dual language learners must be attuned to and acquire the sociocultural constraints and norms for communicating effectively in more than one language. While sociocultural variation is important for understanding language acquisition even among monolingual children living in relatively homogeneous monocultural environments, sociocultural variation is inherent and, indeed, enhanced in the learning environments of children acquiring more than one language insofar as each language is intimately linked with different socio-cultural parameters. Sociocultural variation can be important for understanding bilingualism in yet another way. In studies of the neuro-cognitive consequences of bilingualism, it has been reported that there is a more pronounced association between dual language exposure and activation of certain brain areas among adolescent bilinguals from relatively low SES backgrounds than bilinguals from relatively high SES backgrounds (Brito & Noble, 2018). Inclusion of sociocultural variation in research on the effects of bilingualism can reveal a more nuanced view than emerges if such variation is not considered.

Early Literacy Strategies for Parents of Young Dual Language Learners: A Descriptive Study and Integrative Review.

There is a large and growing population of dual language learners (DLLs) represented in early intervention programs in the United States, the majority of which are from Spanish-speaking families. In order to adequately serve these families, educators and speech-language pathologists must work closely with parents and provide them with culturally responsive strategies and activities that align with their language background and interaction styles. The purpose of this convergent parallel mixed methods study was to identify culturally consistent early literacy strategies specifically for parents of two- to three-year-old DLLs. Findings from a descriptive study that included 94 young DLLs and their parents engaged in a book reading task plus findings from an integrative literature review were converged to identify potential parent-implemented strategies that may support early literacy in young DLLs. From this process, a total of 26 strategies were identified in the categories of enhanced interaction, engagement with texts or storybooks, questioning behaviors, and other language enhancement. Fifteen of the strategies had compelling strength based on available work. Use of these strategies in pilot programs and future treatment studies is recommended.

Toward policies that promote access and equity in early education: A conversation with Shantel Meek

Shantel Meek of the Children’s Equity Project talks with Kappan about the challenges facing early childhood education. These include the splintered nature of the system, a lack of funding, and the low status and pay afforded to the early childhood workforce. Although early care programs, such as Head Start, have helped children in poverty, disparities in access and program quality in early childcare persist for young children of color, children with disabilities, and young dual-language learners.

The Bilingual Language Diversity of Latino Preschoolers: A Latent Profile Analysis.

Purpose This study describes the language diversity (the within-group variability in dual-language skills) of a sample of Latino dual-language learners (preschoolers, 3-5 years of age) and how language diversity is related to home and classroom factors. Method A sample of 161 caregivers and their preschoolers participated in this study. Caregivers and a sample of 19 teachers reported on demographic factors and home and classroom language environments. Children were assessed in various domains of both Spanish and English to evaluate their language proficiency skills in each language. Latent profile analysis was used to generate profiles of the diversity of bilingual skills of young dual-language learners. Results Four profiles of dual-language skills emerged, characterized by balanced versus uneven skills and phonology and morphosyntax domains. The domains within each language served as markers to distinguish the profiles from one another, specifically morphosyntax and phonology. The results underscore the linguistic heterogeneity of preschool Latino dual-language learners. Conclusions Findings reflect the importance of highlighting the strengths of language diversity of preschool Latino dual-language learners instead of employing a monolithic, "one-size-fits-all" approach when considering how to best support them. Furthermore, the home environment plays an important role in supporting Spanish language skills, especially if such support is not necessarily provided at school.

The Specificity Principle in Young Dual Language Learners' English Development.

This study employs the Specificity Principle to examine the relative impacts of external (input quantity at home and at school, number of books and reading frequency at home, teachers' degree and experience, language usage, socioeconomic status) and internal factors (children's working memory, nonverbal intelligence, learning-related social-skills, chronological age, gender) on children's English-language development in phonological awareness (PA), receptive vocabulary (RV), and word reading (WR). Altogether, 736 four- to five-year-old Singaporean Mandarin-English speaking kindergarteners were assessed twice longitudinally. Their English-language PA, RV, and WR development was predicted using the eight external factors and five internal factors with Bayesian least absolute shrinkage and selection operators. Internal factors explained more variance than external factors in all three language domains. External factors had their largest impact on RV.

Are translated mathematics items a valid accommodation for dual language learners? Evidence from ECLS-K

When measuring academic skills among students whose primary language is not English, standardized assessments are often provided in languages other than English. The degree to which alternate-language test translations yield unbiased, equitable assessment must be evaluated; however, traditional methods of investigating measurement equivalence are susceptible to confounding group differences. The primary purposes of this study were to investigate differential item functioning (DIF) and item bias across Spanish and English forms of an assessment of early mathematics skills. Secondary purposes were to investigate the presence of selection bias and demonstrate a novel approach for investigating DIF that uses a regression discontinuity design framework to control for selection bias. Data were drawn from 1,750 Spanish-speaking Kindergarteners participating in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999, who were administered either the Spanish or English version of the mathematics assessment based on their performance on an English language screening measure. Evidence of selection bias—differences between groups in SES, age, approaches to learning, self-control, social interaction, country of birth, childcare, household composition and number in the home, books in the home, and parent involvement—highlighted limitations of a traditional approach for investigating DIF that only controlled for ability. When controlling for selection bias, only 11% of items displayed DIF, and subsequent examination of item content did not suggest item bias. Results provide evidence that the Spanish translation of the ECLS-K mathematics assessment is an equitable and unbiased assessment accommodation for young dual language learners.

Long-term interrelations between socio-emotional and language competencies among preschool dual language learners in Germany.

Recent research has shown that socio-emotional and language competencies are positively associated with each other. However, few studies have explored these associations for the second language competencies (L2) of young dual language learners (DLLs). This longitudinal study investigated possible bidirectional associations between L2 language (expressive and receptive vocabulary) and socio-emotional competencies among preschool DLLs. The participants were 216 German DLLs (MT1 =52.67months; SD=9.54; 53% girls) who were recruited from 19 preschools. L2 skills were assessed at three time points over the course of one year using standardized tests for expressive and receptive vocabulary. Children's teachers rated their socio-emotional strengths and behaviour concerns. Cross-lagged panel analyses were used to examine the temporal interplay and longitudinal directionality of effects controlling for children's age, sex, type of language acquisition (sequential vs. simultaneous), and socio-economic status. Vocabulary skills and socio-emotional skills were positively correlated with one another at each time point, such that children with better language proficiency were rated by their teachers as children with higher levels of socio-emotional competence. Moreover, our results provided support for an effect of early socio-emotional skills (T1) on the relative increase in L2 vocabulary skills (T2 & T3), particularly for expressive vocabulary. However, our results did not demonstrate a statistically significant effect of better L2 language skills on the relative change in socio-emotional competencies. Our results suggest unidirectional longitudinal relations between the socio-emotional and L2 skills, signifying the role of socio-emotional skills for the vocabulary development of DLLs.

Language use, home literacy environment, and demography: Predicting vocabulary skills among diverse young dual language learners in Norway.

From a socio-cultural perspective, language offers a means for children to communicate with and learn from others through interaction: language is the medium through which young children are provided cognitive, social, and emotional support in interactions with caregivers, siblings, and peers; and children characterized as dual language learners (DLLs) have in common that they receive this developmental support in two different languages. However, due to variations in socioeconomic factors, ethnic/immigration background, and language socialization practices, DLLs display considerable variability in their first- and second-language proficiency (McCabe, Tamis-LeMonda, Bornstein, Cates, Golinkoff, Guerra, Hirsh-Pasek, Hoff, Kuchirko, Melzi, Mendelsohn, Páez & Song, 2013).

Developing oral language in young dual language learners, Cultivating Oral Language and Literacy Talent in Students (COLLTS)

ABSTRACT Dual language learners are a growing population in early learning and care settings. Young DLLs have the potential to develop proficiency in two languages when provided adequate supports; however, most teachers of young DLLs feel inadequately prepared to support DLLs. Cultivating Oral Language and Literacy Talent in Students (COLLTS) is an evidence-based dual language program that provides teachers with lessons to support DLLs’ language development. Findings from a study of COLLTS conducted in Head Start Centers serving Spanish-speaking DLLs indicate that children who participated in the intervention demonstrated significant improvement in oral language skills compared with students who did not participate in the intervention. In this paper, we showcase the COLLTS methods used to develop DLLs’ language during vocabulary instruction, interactive shared reading and writing, foundational skills development, and family engagement activities.

Dynamic Assessment Language Tasks and the Prediction of Performance on Year-End Language Skills in Preschool Dual Language Learners.

Purpose Early identification is a key element for accessing appropriate services for preschool children with language impairment. However, there is a high risk of misidentifying typically developing dual language learners as having language impairment if inappropriate tools designed for monolingual children are used. In this study of children with bilingual exposure, we explored performance on brief dynamic assessment (DA) language tasks using graduated prompting because this approach has potential applications for screening. We asked if children's performance on DA language tasks earlier in the year was related to their performance on a year-end language achievement measure. Method Twenty 4-year-old children from Spanish-speaking homes attending Head Start preschools in the southwestern United States completed three DA graduated prompting language tasks 3-6 months prior to the Head Start preschools' year-end achievement testing. The DA tasks, Novel Adjective Learning, Similarities in Function, and Prediction, were administered in Spanish, but correct responses in English or Spanish were accepted. The year-end achievement measure, the Learning Accomplishment Profile-Third Edition (LAP3), was administered by the children's Head Start teachers, who also credited correct responses in either language. Results Children's performance on two of the three DA language tasks was significantly and positively related to year-end LAP3 language scores, and there was a moderate and significant relationship for one of the DA tasks, even when controlling for age and initial LAP3 scores. Conclusions Although the relationship of performance on DA with year-end performance varies across tasks, the findings indicate potential for using a graduated prompting approach to language screening with young dual language learners. Further research is needed to select the best tasks for administration in a graduated prompting framework and determine accuracy of identification of language impairment.

Social Validity in Early Language Interventions for Dual Language Learners: A Systematic Review of the Literature

The social validity of intervention research has been emphasized in special education and related fields for decades. There is relatively little focus on social validity that considers culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Eleven articles met the inclusionary criteria for this systematic review and were evaluated to describe social validity in early language intervention research—specifically with young (birth through 5 years) dual language learners (DLLs). We examined how social validity was considered and addressed, how social validity was measured, and the results of social validity assessments. Definitions of social validity were generally vague, and researchers in most studies only considered social validity post intervention rather than prior to starting or during the interventions. Participants generally viewed interventions positively, but incomplete data were often reported.

Web-based Professional Development for Improving Early Childhood Professionals’ Actual and Perceived Knowledge of Dual Language Learners

ABSTRACT Web-based professional development has the potential to increase the early childhood workforce’s knowledge of young dual language learners (DLLs). Yet there is a gap in the literature on web-based professional development specific to DLLs and its role in changes in actual and perceived knowledge among early childhood professionals. To begin addressing this gap, the current study examines the associations between early childhood professionals’ participation in a web-based learning platform with targeted content on supporting young DLLs and changes in actual and perceived knowledge about DLLs. This study also examines how background characteristics and experiences may be associated with increases in knowledge after module participation. Results show increases in participants’ actual and perceived knowledge after completing the module. Relevant background characteristics included having a college-degree, working in home-based child care, and participating in DLL-specific professional development within the prior year. Having prior DLL-specific professional development moderated the links between pre-module knowledge and post-module knowledge. These results highlight the relevance of web-based professional development as an approach to building the knowledge of early childhood professionals to work with young DLLs.