Physical Activity In Young Children Research Articles

Physical Activity of Young Children

Occupational therapists concerned with the long-term health and welfare of children need to be aware of the decline in physical activity of children in most Western societies. The current study examined the extent of physical activity in the lives of 50 Australian children with a mean age of 7.74 years through questionnaires completed by the children's parents and pedometer (step) data collected from the children during 4 days. The current data show that higher self-perception of physical competence, child's levels of physical skill, and low parental perception of peer teasing were the best predictors of physical activity. Higher family socioeconomic status was found to be a significant predictor of more steps being taken on weekends, and partner's (usually a father's) level of exercise was an important predictor of the number of weekend steps. Children who were perceived to experience more peer teasing completed fewer steps on the weekend. The findings from this study indicate that children's physical activity levels may depend on the availability of family resources, and that children in their early school years may already experience negative effects from teasing that, combined with reduced self-confidence, may lay the foundation for their withdrawing from physical activity as they get older.

Validation of the Digiwalker™ Pedometer for Measuring Physical Activity in Young Children

Activity measurement using a uniaxial pedometer was validated against behavioral observation using the Children’s Activity Rating Scale (CARS) in 30 three- to four-year-old children in a nursery school setting. Correlations were calculated for individual children, whereas the relationship for the total group was investigated using multilevel linear regression. The mean counts for boys and girls for the Digiwalker™ were 66.8 (± 64.0) and 47.4 (± 61.3; p < .01) steps per 3 minutes, respectively, whereas the mean CARS scores for boys and girls were 1.8 (± 0.6) and 1.6 (± 0.6; p < .01), respectively. Within-child correlations for CARS versus Digiwalker counts ranged from 0.64 to 0.95 with a median value of 0.86, whereas the multilevel analysis provided strong evidence of a relationship between CARS and Digiwalker (all p < .001). Data from the current study show that gender differences in physical levels exist in very young children and support the utility of the Digiwalker pedometer for assessing physical activity in this age group.

Fundamental Movement Skills and Habitual Physical Activity in Young Children

To test for relationships between objectively measured habitual physical activity and fundamental movement skills in a relatively large and representative sample of preschool children. Physical activity was measured over 6 d using the Computer Science and Applications (CSA) accelerometer in 394 boys and girls (mean age 4.2, SD 0.5 yr). Children were scored on 15 fundamental movement skills, based on the Movement Assessment Battery, by a single observer. Total physical activity (r=0.10, P<0.05) and percent time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (r=0.18, P<0.001) were significantly correlated with total movement skills score. Time spent in light-intensity physical activity was not significantly correlated with motor skills score (r=0.02, P>0.05). In this sample and setting, fundamental movement skills were significantly associated with habitual physical activity, but the association between the two variables was weak. The present study questions whether the widely assumed relationships between motor skills and habitual physical activity actually exist in young children.

Preschool Children's Accumulated and Sustained Physical Activity

39 3- to 5-year-old children wore heart-rate monitors for 12 hr. on three consecutive days to examine physical activity patterns. Parent logs supplied additional information on type and location of activity. The highest number of accumulated minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity was recorded during the weekday (38.6 min.) and weekend (31.4 min.) afternoons, a time period when more activity occurred outdoors. Sustained activity was mostly short in duration, but many children (71%) accumulated recommended amounts of activity on the weekday, fewer (46%) on the weekend. Spearman rank correlations for weekday (r=.50, p=.004) and weekend (r=.58, p=.004) activity were significant. Considering health risk factors associated with physical inactivity, early educators must look to the essence of young children's physical activity patterns in designing programs. Large motor activity that is intense and that occurs outdoors is a good place to start.

Physical activity and school recess time: Differences between the sexes and the relationship between children's playground physical activity and habitual physical activity

The aims of this study were: (1) to observe participation in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during school recess periods; (2) to determine the relative importance of physical activity during recesses to overall daily physical activity; and (3) to examine differences in physical activity between the sexes during unstructured recess periods. The participants were 22 school children (10 boys, 12 girls) aged 8 – 10 years (mean = 8.9, s = 0.7) in the third and fourth grades. Daily totals for the physical activity variables were calculated by summing the values for each hour of 14 h of physical activity measurements (08:00 to 22:00 h). Recess times (minutes) were as follows: morning 10:30 to 11:00 h and afternoon 15:30 to 16:00 h. We did not differences between boys and girls in daily total accelerometer counts or the overall time spent in MVPA. However, girls were significantly (P < 0.05) more involved (38%) in MVPA during recess time than boys (31%). Participation in MVPA during recess contributes significantly more (P < 0.05) for girls (19%) than boys (15%) to the total amount of physical activity suggested by international health-related physical activity guidelines, while the percentage of time engaged in MVPA during recess time at school accounts for a small amount of the daily MVPA (6% for boys and 8% for girls). The results of this study suggest that school recess time is an important setting to promote MVPA and contributes to daily physical activity in young children, especially in girls.

Resurrecting Free Play in Young Children

We have observed that the nature and amount of free play in young children has changed. Our purpose in this article is to demonstrate why play, and particularly active, unstructured, outdoor play, needs to be restored in children's lives. We propose that efforts to increase physical activity in young children might be more successful if physical activity is promoted using different language-encouraging play-and if a different set of outcomes are emphasized-aspects of child well-being other than physical health. Because most physical activity in preschoolers is equivalent to gross motor play, we suggest that the term "play" be used to encourage movement in preschoolers. The benefits of play on children's social, emotional, and cognitive development are explored.

幼児の身体活動評価尺度の開発 : 子どもアクティビティ尺度

幼児の身体活動評価尺度の開発 : 子どもアクティビティ尺度

Physical activity as a dimension of family life for lower primary school children

While questions of children's engagement in physical activity are being widely debated, little is known about how physical activity is valued and managed within families. This paper reports on qualitative data from a multi-method study on lower primary aged children. The focus of the broader study was to determine the relationships between young children's physical activity patterns, skills, and recreational interests, and their families' location, income, commitment to physical activity, and other responsibilities. Drawing on interviews with 12 purposively selected families, it was found that physical activity was highly valued across different family contexts, that children's engagement was shaped by their interests, friendships, and safety, and that issues such as income, family configuration, parental work commitments, and transport were potential barriers to further engagement.

Objective Measurement of Physical Activity in Pre-School Children

2271 Measurement of physical activity in young children must be objective, since self or parental reports are not valid. The advent of accelerometry has provided a practical and accurate means of objectively assessing engagement in habitual physical activity and inactivity (sedentary behaviour) suitable even in young children. However, there is a paucity of data on physical activity in young children, in part because accelerometry has become available only recently, and in part because of limited evidence on the validity of accelerometers in young children. Pre-school children, are thought to have movements which are highly transitory and more tortional. This might make the method of accelerometry important. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to compare two accelerometers, the computer science and applications (CSA-7164) and Actiwatch, against direct observation of physical activity using the Children's Physical Activity Form (CPAF) (O'Hara et al., 1985). METHODS: CSA-7164 and Actiwatch accelerometers simultaneously measured activity during 35-45 minute sessions of structured play in 78, 3-4 year olds. Rank order correlations between accelerometry and direct observation were used to assess the ability of the accelerometers to assess total activity. Within-child by minute correlations was also calculated between accelerometry output and direct observation. RESULTS: For assessment of total activity CSA output was significantly positively correlated with CPAF (r 0.72, p<0.001), but output from the Actiwatch was not (r 0.16, p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The present study suggests that for epidemiological assessment of total physical activity in young children the CSA-7164 provides greater accuracy than the Actiwatch.

Does Seasonal Changes in Temperature Affect Levels of Vigorous Physical Activity in Preschool-Aged Children?

2062 It has been suggested that when assessing physical activity in young children, seasonal changes be controlled in describing differences. Colder temperatures and less daylight hours in the winter are likely to influence the decision of parents and childcare providers in sending preschool-aged children outdoors. PURPOSE: This study focused on comparing the vigorous physical activity (VPA) levels of preschoolaged children during colder (January-March) and warmer seasons (May-July) in the Midwest region of the United States. It is expected that less time will be spent in VPA during the winter months since it is likely less time will be spent outdoors. METHODS: Subjects included 28 children (12 males, 16 females) age 3–5 (mean age 3.82 ± .55 years) from six childcare centers in northeast Iowa. The cold months averaged −2 degrees C (SD = 5.8) daily high, while the warm months averaged 24 degrees C (SD = 4.9). No difference occurred in precipitation between these seasons. The children were objectively assessed for physical activity using Actwatch-16 activity monitors (Sunriver, OR, USA) for three weekdays during each season. VPA was determined by identifying the number of 15s epoch (time intervals) that the child activity counts > 250. From this procedure, the number total minutes were determined for the day. The three days were averaged to determine total minutes per day, and time in VPA at the center and at home. RESULTS: The mean (SD) minutes spent daily in VPA for the cold and warm months were 67.23 (21.65) and 66.48 (25.29) respectively. A dependent t-test indicated no significant difference in daily VPA between cold and warm months (p = 0.865). In addition, dependent t-tests indicated no significant difference between minutes spent in VPA at the center (p = 0.258) and the home (p = 0.398) when comparing cold versus warm months. There was however a significant (p<0.1) moderate correlation between the locations for the cold (r = 0.59) and warm (r = 0.54) months. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore it is concluded that for the preschool-aged children in this region enrolled in these child-care centers, temperature differences between seasons did not impact the level of VPA

Does Seasonal Changes in Temperature Affect Levels of Vigorous Physical Activity in Preschool-Aged Children?

2062 It has been suggested that when assessing physical activity in young children, seasonal changes be controlled in describing differences. Colder temperatures and less daylight hours in the winter are likely to influence the decision of parents and childcare providers in sending preschool-aged children outdoors. PURPOSE: This study focused on comparing the vigorous physical activity (VPA) levels of preschoolaged children during colder (January-March) and warmer seasons (May-July) in the Midwest region of the United States. It is expected that less time will be spent in VPA during the winter months since it is likely less time will be spent outdoors. METHODS: Subjects included 28 children (12 males, 16 females) age 3–5 (mean age 3.82 ± .55 years) from six childcare centers in northeast Iowa. The cold months averaged −2 degrees C (SD = 5.8) daily high, while the warm months averaged 24 degrees C (SD = 4.9). No difference occurred in precipitation between these seasons. The children were objectively assessed for physical activity using Actwatch-16 activity monitors (Sunriver, OR, USA) for three weekdays during each season. VPA was determined by identifying the number of 15s epoch (time intervals) that the child activity counts > 250. From this procedure, the number total minutes were determined for the day. The three days were averaged to determine total minutes per day, and time in VPA at the center and at home. RESULTS: The mean (SD) minutes spent daily in VPA for the cold and warm months were 67.23 (21.65) and 66.48 (25.29) respectively. A dependent t-test indicated no significant difference in daily VPA between cold and warm months (p = 0.865). In addition, dependent t-tests indicated no significant difference between minutes spent in VPA at the center (p = 0.258) and the home (p = 0.398) when comparing cold versus warm months. There was however a significant (p<0.1) moderate correlation between the locations for the cold (r = 0.59) and warm (r = 0.54) months. CONCLUSIONS: Therefore it is concluded that for the preschool-aged children in this region enrolled in these child-care centers, temperature differences between seasons did not impact the level of VPA

Maximizing children's physical activity: an evaluability assessment to plan a community-based, multi-strategy approach in an ethno-racially and socio-economically diverse city.

An evaluability assessment was conducted to plan a community-based, multi-strategy approach to physical activity promotion (MSAPAP) to maximize young children's physical activity in an ethno-racially and socio-economically diverse city. This assessment involved consultation with various stakeholders to develop a program logic model to diagrammatically describe the MSAPAP. First, published literature regarding physical activity was reviewed to describe interventions designed to increase children's physical activity and to identify factors that contributed to program effectiveness. Secondly, key informants from mainstream service organizations and smaller community-based agencies were interviewed to determine their views on how to increase physical activity among children and families. A workgroup developed a draft logic model based on the results of the literature review and community needs assessment results. Thirdly, stakeholders were consulted about the draft model. This consisted of 12 focus groups with members of school boards (two sessions), members of community organizations (three sessions), lay home visitors who provide support to mothers of young children in ethno-racially diverse communities (one session), and parents from six cultural groups (six sessions). The logic model was revised based on the findings from this consultation. The final logic model shows children aged 3-8 years as the main target group, and parents and various community members who influence children as intermediate target groups. The MSAPAP is depicted as six strategies, which are clusters of program activities that are conceptually similar: community engagement, community assessment, accessibility, promotion, education and skill development, and inclusive programming. The logic model shows the 'cause and effect' relationships among program activities, shorter-term outcome objectives (e.g. to reduce user fees for physical activity programs) and longer-term outcome objectives (e.g. to increase the proportion of children who are physically active). The extensive community involvement in planning the MSAPAP facilitated a subsequent plan to develop, implement and evaluate selected program activities in the MSAPAP.

HOW MANY DAYS OF MONITORING ARE REQUIRED FOR REPRESENTATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN CHILDREN?

Accelerometry is a popular objective method to measure physical activity (PA) in children. Currently there is limited evidence on how long (number of days) and which days (weekdays/weekends) monitoring should be carried out to be confident of a representative PA measurement. Previous work has addressed some of these questions in certain populations of children (Trost et al, 2000). Further research is required to verify these findings in other populations of children. PURPOSE To determine the number of days of monitoring required to obtain a representative measurement of daily PA in young children and which days of the week should be included in this monitoring period. METHODS CSA 7164 uniaxial accelerometers were worn by 76 healthy children (40 male(M) and 36 female(F)), mean age 5.8 years(SD 0.5), for a minimum of 7 consecutive days. The daily total physical activity for each child was expressed as counts per minute (cpm) averaged over the entire daily monitoring period. RESULTS Logarithms of the daily cpm were used to reduce the effect of increasing within child day-to-day variability with increasing daily activity. Using Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula, reliability co-efficients and 95% Confidence Intervals for 1, 4 and 7 days of monitoring were established as 0.35 (0.26,0.46), 0.69 (0.58,0.77) and 0.79 (0.71,0.86) respectively. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance showed that the children were slightly and significantly more active on weekends (M mean = 900.2cpm, F mean = 833.0cpm) than weekdays (M mean = 858.2cpm, F mean = 747.2cpm) (p = 0.02). Boys were slightly and significantly more active than girls on both weekdays and weekends (p = 0.011). CONCLUSION Consistent with previous work, these results show that when using accelerometers, adoption of a monitoring period of around 7 days will ensure a representative measurement of habitual PA of young children. This monitoring period will allow for the effect of greater PA of 5-year-old children at weekends than weekdays. This work is funded by SPARKS 0GLW/O1

Validation of a self-reported physical activity questionnaire for schoolchildren.

There is little information about validation of young children's self-reported physical activity. This study assessed the validity of a self-reported questionnaire designed to measure children's physical activity. Subjects were 34 boys from 4th to 6th grade of a public elementary school. Contents of the self-reported physical activity questionnaire included participation in sports club, physical activity intensity, preference for physical activity, and frequency of physical activity. Subjects were equipped with a Lifecorder and an Actiwatch for 7 consecutive days to monitor physical activity. Physical activity index was calculated from the Lifecorder data of total energy expenditure per day (TEE) divided by basal metabolic rate. Unpaired t-test, analysis of variance, and multiple linear regression analysis were performed to clarify the relationship between the objective and subjective data. Subjects who reported participation in a sports club had a higher physical activity index and energy expenditure originating from physical activity than those who did not. Those characterized by a "vigorous" physical activity intensity had a higher physical activity index (1.63 +/- 0.08), when compared with peers in "moderate" (1.59 +/- 0.06) or "light" categories (1.54 +/- 0.07) (p for linear trend p < 0.05). A high frequency of physical activity was significantly associated with an increasing trend in energy expenditure originating from physical activity, steps, and activity counts. Preference for physical activity was significantly related to data from the Lifecorder and the Actiwatch. Schoolchildren's self-reported physical activity is in accordance with the objective data, and could be used as a valid measure to evaluate physical activity level in school settings.

Validity of a questionnaire evaluating physical activity level in young children

To assess the validity of a questionnaire for evaluating the physical activity of young children as reported by parents. Twenty-one male 1st grade elementary school children were the study subjects. The questionnaire contained 3 questions relating to the physical activity of children and was completed by their parents. These questions were: preference for physical activity: like very much, like, don't like; physical activity compared to peers: more than, the same as, less than peers; time spent on exercise activity per day: <30 min, 30-60 min, 60 min or more. We also assessed physical activity more objectively, using a small instrument for calculating total steps, energy expenditure originating from exercise, and total energy expenditure per day. The contribution of the questionnaire items to the objective indices was evaluated by linear regression analysis. Preference for physical activity was significantly associated with all the objective indices. Physical activity compared with peers had links with total energy expenditure. Time spent in activity was related to total steps and energy expenditure from exercise. All the questionnaire items were valid measures for evaluating the physical activity level in young children and could be applied to a large epidemiological survey.

The validity of nursery teachers' report on the physical activity of young children.

This study examined the validity of nursery teachers' report on the physical activity of young children. Subjects were twenty-one children aged 3 to 4 years (12 boys and 9 girls) at a nursery in Toyama Prefecture, Japan. Children were equipped with the Actiwatch (Mini-mitter Company Inc.) activity monitor and the Caloriecounter Select II (Kenz, Co, Ltd) for three consecutive weekdays to assess their daily physical activity levels. Nursery teachers completed a questionnaire containing questions on children's activity level during the measurement periods at the nursery. The results showed that subjects with a high frequency of physical activity were significantly associated with an increasing trend in total energy expenditure and activity counts per day. Children whose physical activity was rated as "very often" had a significantly higher activity level per day from the Actiwatch instrument, compared with peers whose physical activity was rated as "not often" (570.5 +/- 192.8 counts vs. 334.9 +/- 123.4 counts, p < 0.05). Regarding energy expenditure originating from physical activity and steps per day from the Caloriecounter, a significant difference was found between "very active" children and "inactive" children as rated by the nursery teachers (140.7 +/- 17.5 kcal vs. 78.2 +/- 17.4 kcal, p < 0.05; 16103 +/- 1896 steps vs. 10038 +/- 32 steps, p < 0.05). This study indicates that children's physical activity level as reported by their teachers in nursery surroundings is in accordance with the objective data from the Actiwatch and the Caloriecounter. The results suggest that nursery teachers' respondent for children in physical activity may be used as a valid measure to evaluate young children's physical activity levels, especially in nursery setting.

Factors associated with physical activity in preschool children

Objective: Our purpose was to identify factors associated with the physical activity in young children. Study design: Participants were 214 children (aged 3-5 years) enrolled in 10 childcare centers who were monitored for physical activity with an accelerometer during 2 continuous days (48 hours). Mean daily activity counts, activity counts between 9 AM and 5 PM , and percentage of time spent in vigorous activity were determined. The factors investigated were age, childcare center, season, sex, body mass index (BMI), history of preterm birth, participation in organized activities, parental BMI, and parental educational level. Regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with each of the activity measures. Results: A statistical model including sex, history of preterm birth, childcare center, and father's BMI accounted for 22%, 37%, and 23% of the variance in total daily counts, counts between 9 AM and 5 PM , and percentage of time spent in daily vigorous activity, respectively. Childcare center was the highest individual predictor of activity. Boys were more active than girls in all activity measures except counts between 9 AM and 5 PM . Children born preterm were less active than children born at term, and high activity levels in the child were associated with a low BMI in fathers. Conclusion: The findings indicate that sex, history of preterm birth, childcare center, and father's BMI influence the daily physical activity of young children. (J Pediatr 2002;140:81-5)

Physical activity and bone measures in young children: the Iowa bone development study.

Physical activity has a beneficial effect on bone development in circumpubertal children, although its effect on younger children is uncertain. In this cross-sectional study, we examined associations between physical activity and bone measures in 368 preschool children (mean age: 5.2 years, range: 4-6 years). Physical activity was measured using 4-day accelerometry readings, parental report of children's usual physical activity, and parental report of children's hours of daily television viewing. Total body and site-specific bone mineral content and area bone mineral density (BMD) were measured by dual energy radiograph absorptiometry. After adjustment for age and body size, accelerometry measures of physical activity and parental report of usual physical activity were consistently and positively associated with bone mineral content and BMD in both boys and girls (r = 0.15-0.28). Television viewing was inversely associated with hip BMD in girls (r = -0.15). The proportion of variance in bone measures explained by physical activity in linear regression models ranged from r(2) = 1.5% to 9.0%. In all of these models except total body BMD, at least 1 and often several of the physical activity variables entered as independent predictors. Activity variables most likely to enter the regression models were vigorous physical activity (as determined by accelerometry) and parental ranking of child's usual physical activity. Findings indicate that there are statistically significant and, perhaps important, associations between physical activity and bone measures during early childhood, well ahead of the onset of peak bone mass. This would suggest that intervention strategies to increase physical activity in young children could contribute to optimal bone development.

CONTROLLED TRIAL OF A STRUCTURED INTERVENTION ON ACTIVITY AND MOTOR SKILLS IN 3???4 YEAR OLDS

An epidemic of obesity occurred in British children during the 1990's. Even young children were affected, and the epidemic occurred largely as a result of reduced physical activity (PA). However, there is a dearth of evidence on the efficacy of programs to increase PA in young children. The present study aimed to test the hypothesis that PA and motor skills can be increased by the implementation of a structured intervention (“Topstart”, Youth Sport Trust, Loughborough, UK) in 3–4 year olds. In 31 children (mean age 4.5 years), “Topstart” was incorporated into the kindergarten curriculum (90 minutes per week over 11 weeks) and a matched group of 28 children (mean age 4.6 years) acted as controls. We measured change before and after the intervention in PA by Computer Science and Applications (CSA) accelerometry and changes in motor skills using Sheridan's developmental milestones. In the intervention group PA increased significantly over the period, by around 30% (p < 0.01), but there was no significant change in controls. In both groups motor skills test scores increased significantly, but the magnitude of the change from baseline was significantly greater in the intervention group (p < 0.01). “Topstart” was also very practical: easily incorporated into the curriculum; enjoyed by children and staff. This structured intervention represents a potentially useful population-based intervention for increasing physical activity levels and improving motor skills in young children. It should be tested on a wider scale.

Evaluation of physical activity measured via accelerometry in rural fourth-grade children.

Interest in the benefits of exercise has prompted increased research examining the relationship between physical activity and health status in adults. More recently, considerable research effort has been directed toward the role of physical activity in young children as a precursor to adult physical fitness. The purpose of this study was to estimate the relationship between physical activity measured via accelerometry and body mass index, body mass, body composition, and physical fitness in fourth-grade boys and girls during physical education lessons. 54 fourth-grade students in rural Pennsylvania (28 girls, M age 9.6, SD = .56; 26 boys, M age 9.5, SD = .51) were subjects. Girls were significantly less active during all lessons measured (p < .001). The results of linear regression analyses indicated that physical activity was negatively associated with body mass index, body mass, and body fat percentage (p < .05), and positively associated with physical fitness (VO2max) (p < .01). These data indicate the need for curricular intervention to motivate girls to increase their activity during structured physical education lessons and demonstrate the efficacy of the body mass index as a screening tool within the schools.