Yingzao Fashi Research Articles

『營造法式』 축성도구 연구

The term ‘Yeongjung Pillar (永定柱)’ is used in Korean archaeology to refer to the wooden pillar used to fix wooden blocks when applying the board frame construction method. This use begun in the mid-80s based on the record of Yingzao Fashi (營造法式). However, the record does not correspond with archaeological data in the sense that the wooden pillar used during board frame construction is not equivalent to the Yeongjung Pillar. This paper therefore analyzes the wooden pillar, the ‘Yeongjung Pillar’ of Yingzao Fashi, and other construction materials. In the case of the wooden pillar, the names that were used to refer to it from ancient times, as well as its different forms, were analyzed, in association with construction method and function. To highlight the mistaken interpretation of Yingzao Fashi, the function of the Yeongjung Pillar and other construction materials were examined. These materials were then classified according to various factors. The results of the analysis demonstrate that there are common elements shared between the wooden pillar and the Yeongjung Pillar of the board frame construction method, but differences could also be observed in terms of in size, position during construction, structure, construction or disassembling method, function, and textual records. These results go against the conception that the wooden pillar of the board frame construction method equals the Yeongjung Pillar; the two are clearly different. Finally, the wooden pillar has sometimes been found in the wall, as it was not disassembled after the board frame construction process. In this case, it functioned as the center of the wall or as a Yeongjung Pillar. The functional similarity of the two may be related to the mid-wall column of the wall of dwellings or structures that emerged in the Neolithic Age. The wooden pillar of the board frame construction method may have been derived from the mid-wall column technique. After the Neolithic Age, the wooden pillar that combined the function of the Yeongjung Pillar disappeared, and the two were separated from each other. The Yeongjung Pillar continually developed after its emergence from the midwall column, and it was expansively applied to wall construction. It became institutionalized as the essential civil engineering technology in castle construction with the compilation of the architecture book Yingzao Fashi of the North Song Dynasty.

Reassessing the Proportional System of Joseon Era Wooden Architecture: The Bracket Arm Length and Width as a Standard Modular Method

Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongcheng Zuofa were not applied to Korean wooden architecture. This study notes the size of bracket arms as a standard modular method by investigating the proportion systems of Sungnyemun, Paldalmun, and Heunginjimun Gates, the official government buildings of the Joseon Dynasty. The purlin direction bracket arms in the intercolumnar bracket sets apply a proportional system in the ratio of a regular integer relationship to the front and side facades and building height. Challenging current assumptions, the application of the bracket arm width as a modular rule is divided into more subdivided values than the measurement units. A particularly important finding is that, unlike the height of the bracket arms, the width and length of the brackets are standard members that determine the height of the side facades. This is very similar to the official government building styles in the Song and Qing Dynasties, premodern China. Therefore, this study is meaningful in reassessing wooden frame structures of the Joseon era, deriving parametric measuring rules universally applied in East Asia to provide basic data useful for heritage conservation.

Economy and extravagance in craft culture: the deployment of a grand building code in Chinese construction history

ABSTRACT The grand building code called Yingzao fashi, drafted in the twelfth-century Song dynasty, was used as a technical reference guide and assisted previous researchers in analyses of premodern Chinese building structures and construction, yet how the building code entangled with contemporary society, coetaneous challenges and the changing courses of political power deserves a comprehensive investigation. This study applies the research approach of textual analysis to track the vicissitude of the grand building code, examine these contemporary reforming attempts related to the building code, and scrutinise the consequence of the national building code when it was implemented in the later Song dynasty. By tracing the formation, promulgation and implementation of Yingzao fashi in premodern China, this paper reveals that the building standards are the product of emerging philosophical theories and the standardisation of practices is the key strategy in the building and construction reforms. It also concludes that the political and power factors would dominantly influence the evolution of the building code and thwart its effectiveness, thus producing a result opposite to its initial intention in practice.

Parameter analysis on longitudinal lateral force resistance of Song dynasty timber frame with Panjian

The Panjian structure is an important longitudinal connecting member of Song Dynasty hall-type buildings in China. To study the lateral force resistance of such structures, a refined finite element model of Song-style hall-type single-room four-column space timber frame containing Panjian structure was established based on the official building code Yingzao Fashi of Song Dynasty. The Panjian and inner E’fang in the lower-ping part, the Panjian in the upper-ping part, and Guazi-gong Panjian and Man-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part were investigated. The model hysteresis curves of all three parts of the longitudinal timber frame were found to be S-shaped, with obvious pinching effect, fuller at both ends and centrosymmetric shape. The Panjian structures in the lower-ping and upper-ping parts, and the Guazi-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part increased the energy dissipation and lateral stiffness of the timber frame. The Man-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part, however, was detrimental to the lateral resistance of the structure. Throughout the test, the Panjian structures were relatively intact, with large plastic damage occurring at both ends of the E’fang. For the repair and testing of similar ancient buildings, some reference suggestions are provided.

Design Method of Zen-Style Bracket Sets Recorded in the Japanese Carpentry Manual Kamakura Zoei Myomoku (Part 1): A Comparative Study with the Chinese Manual Yingzao Fashi – A Secondary Publication

Through a comparison with the traditional Chinese manual Yingzao Fashi (Technical Treatise on Architecture and Craftsmanship), this paper analyzes the composition and design methods of Zen-style bracket sets described in the Kamakura Zoei Myomoku, a technical document inherited by the Kawachi family of carpenters at the Kenchoji Temple in Kamakura, Japan from the 13th to 19th century. As a result, the paper suggests that there were some similarities between Chinese and Japanese modular designs, which both used the cross-section of Gong as the basic unit, while other techniques like the use of a baseline for equal spacing and the rafter size as the basic unit, are considered to be Japanese innovations.

Experimental Study on the Structural Behavior of the Oldest Timber Frame in China

The main hall of the Nanchan Temple, the oldest wooden building of the Tang Dynasty (782 C.E.) in China, was built 1200 years ago, representing a valuable heritage building. Thus far, research on the Nanchan Temple has focused on stylistic comparisons and historical documentary evidence. This study concentrates on the oldest timber-framed structure, with our experiments designed to understand the structural behavior of the hall. In this study, a 1:10-scaled specimen of a timber-framed building was fabricated based on the construction method of Yingzao Fashi, and the main hall of the Nanchan Temple was first reviewed; then, quasi-static tests were conducted under different vertical loads to ascertain the seismic mechanism of the oldest wooden building. The stiffness, energy dissipation, vertical load transfer path, bending stress of the component, and axial force were investigated. According to the results obtained on the vertical load transfer path, the roof was found to cause stress to the structural sections. The results indicate that the vertical load of the roof above Cha Shou is transferred down through Ping Liang; it then passes through Ping Liang to Tuo Feng and eventually passes to Sichuan Fu, which causes deformation. We increased the vertical loads, resulting in the increased lateral resistance (resilience) of the Nanchan Temple, and the stability of the timber-framed building in relation to the vertical loads was investigated. Moreover, the effects of horizontal and vertical loads were studied, and thus, we provide proposals for repair and conservation.

Tiangong Louge in Eastern Pure Land Illustrations of the Medicine Buddha – A Secondary Publication

After the arrival of Buddhism in China, the foreign concept of heavenly buildings merged with the indigenous Tang-Song architecture into what became known as tiangong louge (heavenly palaces). Through comparison with Song building standards (Yingzao Fashi), this paper analyzes the architectural representations of tiangong louge in Eastern Pure Land illustrations of the Medicine Buddha. What becomes immediately apparent is that Yingzao Fashi describes only a few specific buildings (dianshen, chalou, jiaolou, xiewu, xinglang), whereas the Pure Land illustrations depict a greater diversity and variety of forms (for example, sanmen). A possible reason for this is that the idea of the Eastern Pure Land underwent significant changes before the Yingzao Fashi was compiled. Another reason is that the belief in the Eastern Pure Land was always rooted in reality and the actual conditions of the site. Additionally, Eastern Pure Land illustrations reveal four different types of clustered design: open foreground, one courtyard; open foreground, two courtyards; closed foreground, one courtyard; and closed foreground, two courtyards.

Traditional Chinese architecture: the transmission of technical knowledge for the development of building heritage

The contribution outlines the typical elements of Chinese architecture, which combines the sophistication of technical and aesthetic details, and provides rules and criteria for the sizing and assembling standardized construction of different classes of buildings. These building elements are described in detail, through text and images, in the ancient manuals of Chinese architecture. The most significant document for its completeness and excellent state of preservation is entitled Yingzao Fashi: it was written by Li Chieh and published in 1103, after about thirty years of changes and integrations, and has been reissued several times over the centuries by different authors. This manual includes part of the contents of other earlier manuscripts, written since 700. It contains a set of guidelines resulting from the fusion of knowledge related to the theory and practice of building, respectively, transferred through theoretical texts and practical experiences. The contents of this important text were further developed and increasingly refined in other subsequent manuals (e.g., the Gongcheng Zuofa Zeli of 1734 and the Qing Shi Yingzao Zeli - Yingzao Suanli of 1934). The technical knowledge contained in these manuals allows the dissemination of down-handed practices to support the architects, artisans, and carpenters’ activity for constructing traditional works based on a wooden frame structure. The collection of drawings, tables, and rules elaborated over the centuries allows today a deeper comprehension of the genesis and evolution of the main construction elements of traditional Chinese buildings (foundations, beams, pillars, bracketing systems, roofing systems), enabling their analysis, recovery, and reconstruction.

Recognizing the Correlation of Architectural Drawing Methods between Ancient Mathematical Books and Octagonal Timber-framed Monuments in East Asia

ABSTRACT Octagonal buildings in ancient Korea were mostly constructed in the likeness of Buddhist pagodas that emerged during the Goguryeo era. The ancient Chinese books of Jiuzhang Suanshu and Yingzao Fashi confirm that, in constructing Fogongsi’s Yingxian Wooden Pagoda, the ancients could not design a full-form regular octagonal plan in the pre-seventeenth century before the introduction of Western mathematics. Eight-cornered monuments in Japan and Korea faced the same challenge. Thus, this study examines the acceptance and limitations of adapting octagonal drawing methods in Korean architecture from Chinese and Western mathematics. It conducts comparative studies of architectural and mathematical history in pre-modern and modern times. It reveals that field carpenters applied Yingzao Fashi’s formula in constructing an octagon via a square’s diagonal ratio. Further, the Western method of constructing regular octagons was introduced to the Korean Peninsula in the eighteenth century but was not utilized at work sites. Ultimately, the concepts in mathematics texts had a certain influence on the formative beauty of wooden constructions.

Making Modern Knowledge of Traditional Carpentry in China and Japan: Myth, Reality and Transmission

Abstract Carpentry skills were among the most important elements of building practice in premodern China and Japan, and traditional carpentry skills continue in use in both countries to the present day. Although their importance has been greatly marginalised in building practice, in both countries some master carpenters have gained public recognition. This paper compares the modernisation of traditional building knowledge in China and Japan, and the fate of carpentry knowledge as the building industry and the formal discipline of architecture evolved. It distinguishes three phases in this historical trajectory: the period during the introduction of Western architecture as a discipline, when traditional knowledge was rejected or used selectively in the construction of national histories of building; the period when modern technology took over the main building industry and traditional craftsmen had to confront the realities of new technologies of production; and the period, still unfolding today, where heritage movements are promoting the recuperation and development of traditional craft knowledge. For each country, the paper traces how the nation’s history of building was selectively fashioned into an orthodox narrative; explores the content of key early technical works (for China, the official handbook Yingzao fashi [Building standards] and the craftsman’s manual Lu Ban jing [Carpenters’ Canon], and for Japan kikujutsu [literally, “compass and ruler techniques”] books); and shows how a talented master carpenter succeeded in creating a niche for himself within the contemporary heritage culture. It concludes that differences in the cultural respect accorded to carpentry knowledge in the two countries are rooted in the contrasting status of craftsmen in the premodern era.

Parameterizing the Curvilinear Roofs of Traditional Chinese Architecture

The curvilinear roofs of ancient Chinese wooden architecture feature unique functional, hierarchical, and aesthetic elements. However, the digitalization of these roofs has yet to be explored because of the lack of accurate mathematical models for these roof geometries. This research aims to parameterize the design and construction rules for these roofs as stipulated in the Yingzao fashi. We first illustrate the major features of curvilinear roofs, followed by a comprehensive investigation on the raising and bending rules via the original texts and drawing samples provided in the Yingzao fashi and the Annotated yingzao fashi by Sicheng Liang. Then, the mathematical models are developed. The main contribution of this research is the transformation of the design and building rules for complex curvilinear roofs into mathematical models, enabling designers to generate such roof architecture and adding new insights to existing mathematical methods in studying ancient architecture.

Review: Chinese Architecture: A History, by Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt

Review: <i>Chinese Architecture: A History</i>, by Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt

Reconsidering a proportional system of timber-frame structures through ancient mathematics books: a case study on the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery

ABSTRACTThe mathematics references in ancient China, the Zhoubi Suanjing and the Jiuzhang Suanshu, present information on formative ideas of ancient people and their perception of objects. The introduction to the Yingzao Fashi mentions mathematical sources, including the Zhoubi Suanjing. Both of these books focus on the philosophical concept of Tianyuan difang (Heaven is round and Earth is square), as well as inscribed and circumscribed circles. The square root of 2(√2), which can be derived from this part, proves to be an essential criterion for building, seen in Korea, China, and Japan. Using the exemplary Koryŏ building, the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery, this thesis shows that the standard ground plan width of the outermost bay has a √2 ratio to the central bay width. Its cross-section, likewise, proves that √2 times or twice the distance or height (relying on the height of the eave columns) are applied to the distance or height between each column and purlin in the application of arithmetic and geometric concepts. In the future, this work will be a reference for the reconstruction design of ancient buildings prior to the Koryŏ period, analogous to the Muryangsujŏn Hall.

AN AUTOMATIC EXTRACTION METHOD FOR THE PARAMETERS OF MULTI-LOD BIM MODELS FOR TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF WOODEN ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE

Abstract. A demand-oriented Building Information Model (BIM) model built using high-fidelity point cloud data can better protect architectural heritage. The multi-level detail (mutli-LoD) parametric model emphasizes the different protection requirements of typical components and the automatic extraction of corresponding parameters of high-fidelity point clouds, which are two related key issues. Taking the typical Chinese wooden architectural heritage as an example, according to different requirements, the multi-LoD principle of typical components is proposed. On this basis, the automatic extraction method of the above parameters is developed, and the key parameters of the method are recommended. In order to solve the above problems, taking the three typical Dou-Gong used in Liao Dynasty and Song Dynasty, including Zhutou Puzuo, Bujian Puzuo and Zhuanjiao Puzuo, as an example, briefly introduced the standardization characteristics of the typical components of the "Yingzao Fashi". Subsequently, the corresponding multiple LoD principles are recommended according to different requirements. Based on this and high-fidelity point cloud data, an automatic extraction method for multi-LoD BIM model parameters for typical components of wooden architectural heritage is proposed.

Illustrations of the 1925-edition Yingzao fashi 營造法式: Jørn Utzon’s aesthetic confirmation and inspiration for the Sydney Opera House design (1958–1966)

ABSTRACTIn his 1958 study trip to China, Danish architect Jørn Utzon (1918–2008) acquired two copies of the 1925-edition Yingzao fashi (Chinese Building Standards), first published in 1103 AD. Utzon’s own Yingzao fashi meticulously documented the imperial building practice in feudal China with numerous illustrations. The monograph later became one of the most important sources for Utzon to study the design, structure, construction and decoration of Chinese monuments during his enduring interest in Chinese building culture. However, the precise role of Utzon’s ideas and ideals inspired by the Yingzao fashi in the Opera House design still remains largely unexplored. By surveying the primary sources in The Utzon Archives, the State Library of New South Wales and the architectural collection of Utzon’s family, as well as interviewing his staff and colleagues, the authors argue the Yingzao fashi delivered an important impact both on the aesthetic ideal and architectonic characteristics of Utzon’s Opera House design. This presents that illustrations of Utzon’s Yingzao fashi served not only as a conceptual means to initiate his design but also as practical implements for him and his team to solve the problems of design, production and construction, before their forced resignation in 1966.

Design methods of rotating sutra-case cabinets: a comparative study of the architectural technic books of China and Japan

ABSTRACTThe rotating sutra-case cabinet is a wooden revolving bookshelf used for storing sutras in Buddhist temples, introduced from China into Japan during the Japanese medieval period. Besides the extant examples, specifications of sutra-case-cabinets can also be found in the architectural technic books of both countries, such as the Yingzao fashi (營造法式) of the Chinese Northern Song dynasty and the kiwari shō (木割書) of the Japanese Edo period. In this paper, the author discovers the design modules and dimensional plans of the rotating sutra-case cabinets by analyzing the specifications in the architectural technic books. The paper uncovers different methods used for designing the rotating sutra-case cabinets in China and Japan. A parallel constitution in dimensional plan is found in the Yingzao fashi, while in the Japanese kiwari shō the dimensional plans present a pyramid-shaped constitution. Furthermore, it is presumed that the differences between the Yingzao fashi and the kiwari shō are due to the editorial backgrounds and organizations.

The Evolution of the Timber Structure System of the Buddhist Buildings in the Regions South of the Yangtze River from 10th–14th Century Based on the Main Hall of Baoguo Temple

ABSTRACT China’s traditional wooden building has been gradually stylized, standardized, and modularized from the beginning of Sui and Tang Dynasties to Song Dynasty. Based on the timber structure system of Yingzao Fashi (the Methods), a construction monograph issued in 12th century, this article analyzes the timber structure systems of the main hall of Baoguo temple and compares it with other main halls of Buddhist temples built during Five Dynasties, Song Dynasty, and Yuan Dynasty in the regions South of the Yangtze river. The analysis presents the evolution of the timber structure systems of the Buddhist buildings. This article also analyzes the various types of timber structures in the perspective of modern structural theories, in order to determine and understand the influences that lead to the evolution. The findings provide valuable contributions to the protection, rehabilitation, restoration, and reuse of the historic timber buildings in Southern regions. In this articl,e, the regions South of the Yangtze refers to Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Fujian Provinces from about 10th–14th century A.D. during the Five Dynasties (906–970 A.D.), Song Dynasty (960–1279), and Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 A.D.).

Research of Ancient Architectures in Jin-Fen Area Based on GIS&BIM Technology

The number of well-preserved ancient buildings located in Shanxi Province, enjoying the absolute maximum proportion of ancient architectures in China, is about 18418, among which, 9053 buildings have the structural style of wood frame. The value of the application of BIM (Building Information Modeling) and GIS (Geographic Information System) is gradually probed and testified in the corresponding fields of ancient architecture’s spatial distribution information management, routine maintenance and special conservation & restoration, the evaluation and simulation of related disasters, such as earthquake. The research objects are ancient architectures in JIN-FEN area, which were first investigated by Sicheng LIANG and recorded in his work of “Chinese ancient architectures survey report”. The research objects, i.e. the ancient architectures in Jin-Fen area include those in Sicheng LIANG’s investigation, and further adjustments were made through authors’ on-site investigation and literature searching & collection. During this research process, the spatial distributing Geodatabase of research objects is established utilizing GIS. The BIM components library for ancient buildings is formed combining on-site investigation data and precedent classic works, such as “Yingzao Fashi”, a treatise on architectural methods in Song Dynasty, “Yongle Encyclopedia” and “Gongcheng Zuofa Zeli”, case collections of engineering practice, by the Ministry of Construction of Qing Dynasty. A building of Guangsheng temple in Hongtong county is selected as an example to elaborate the BIM model construction process based on the BIM components library for ancient buildings. Based on the foregoing work results of spatial distribution data, attribute data of features, 3D graphic information and parametric building information model, the information management system for ancient architectures in Jin-Fen Area, utilizing GIS&BIM technology, could be constructed to support the further research of seismic disaster analysis and seismic performance simulation.

Feng Jiren, Chinese Architecture and Metaphor: Song Culture in the Yingzao Fashi Building Manual, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press (Spatial Habitus: Making and Meaning in Asia’s Vernacular Architecture), 2012, 304 pp.

Feng Jiren, Chinese Architecture and Metaphor: Song Culture in the Yingzao Fashi Building Manual, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press (Spatial Habitus: Making and Meaning in Asia’s Vernacular Architecture), 2012, 304 pp.

Chinese Architecture and Metaphor: Song Culture in the "Yingzao Fashi" Building Manual by Jiren Feng

Chinese Architecture and Metaphor: Song Culture in the "Yingzao Fashi" Building Manual by Jiren Feng