Cyanoramphus Auriceps Research Articles

Taxonomic status of Cyanoramphus parakeets on the Auckland Islands and implications for the validity of the orange-fronted parakeet as a discrete species

Cyanoramphus parakeets are a key biogeographic element of the Pacific. Many of these parakeets are, however, endangered, with ongoing conservation management hampered by the unresolved taxonomic status of some populations. We used modern and ancient DNA (mitochondrial DNA control region) to assess the taxonomy of the Auckland Islands populations of red-crowned (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae) and yellow-crowned (Cyanoramphus auriceps) parakeets. Our analyses show that both red-crowned and yellow-crowned parakeets on the Auckland Islands are nested within the mainland New Zealand diversity of the two species. However, we also found an orange-fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus malherbi) mitochondrial DNA lineage within the genome of both of these species in the Auckland Islands population. Further sampling of historic orange-fronted parakeet museum skins showed that the orange-fronted morphotype is paraphyletic with respect to mitochondrial haplotype, which is probably caused by hybridisation or incomplete lineage sorting. In light of this, we review and critically assess the taxonomic history of the orange-fronted parakeet, and address whether the species was historically present on the Auckland Islands.

Microsatellite primers for the red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae)

We describe the isolation and characterization of ten polymorphic microsatellite loci for the red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae) that cross-amplify in the yellow-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus auriceps). The loci were initially tested for 15 individuals/species. The mean expected heterozygosity across all loci was 0.79 (SD ± 0.12) and 0.74 (SD ± 0.13) for red-crowned and yellow-crowned parakeets, respectively. These new microsatellites are useful tools as part of continuing research on the population and conservation genetics of red-crowned parakeets and related species.

Novel ssDNA viruses discovered in yellow-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus auriceps) nesting material

During routine monitoring of yellow-crowned parakeets in the Poulter Valley of the South Island of New Zealand, a dead parakeet chick was discovered in a nest. Known parrot-infecting viruses, such as beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), avian polyomavirus (APV), and parrot hepatitis B virus (PHBV), were not detected in the nesting material. However, we recovered two novel single-stranded DNA viruses (ssDNA), CynNCXV (2308nt) and CynNCKV (2087nt), which have genome architectures similar to those of circoviruses, characterised by circular genomes with two large bidirectional open reading frames (ORFs). Both contain a stem-loop element with a conserved nonanucleotide motif, known to be required for rolling-circle replication. The full genomes had no BLASTn similarity to known ssDNA viruses. However, in both genomes the larger ORFs have BLAST similarity to known replication-associated proteins (Reps). CynNCKV has 30% similarity to picobiliphyte nano-like virus (Picobiliphyte M5584-5) with 66-88% coverage (e-value of 5×10(-33)), whereas CynNCXV has 33% similarity to rodent stool-associated virus (RodSCV M-45) with 92-94% coverage (e-value of 5×10(-31)). Found within these ORFs were the rolling-circle replication motifs I, II, III and the helicase motifs Walker A and Walker B. Maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analysis of the Reps reveals that these are two novel ssDNA viruses. At this point, we are unable to attribute the death of the parakeet to these two new novel ssDNA viruses.

Characterisation of microsatellite loci in the critically endangered orange-fronted kākāriki (Cyanoramphus malherbi) isolated using genomic next generation sequencing

Cyanoramphus malherbi is a critically endangered endemic parakeet, or kākāriki, restricted to three mainland valleys in North Canterbury and four translocated populations on predator-free offshore islands of New Zealand. Using genomic next generation sequencing to identify microsatellites, 16,497 sequenced fragments were obtained. Primers were designed for 35 of 62 detected loci: 26 amplified successfully and 18 were polymorphic. Sequence homology to three assembled avian genomes was used to assign five loci to five different autosomes. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 7 with observed heterozygosities ranging between 0.09 and 0.70. All 18 loci readily cross-amplified in Cyanoramphus auriceps, indicating the utility of these markers for conservation genetic management of both species.

Molecular characterisation of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) in New Zealand and its implications for managing an infectious disease

Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) infections are often fatal to both captive and wild parrot populations. Its recent discovery in a wild population of native red-fronted parakeets has raised concerns for the conservation of native parrots, all of which are threatened or endangered. The question of a recent introduction versus a native genotype of the virus poses different conservation-management challenges, and thus, a clear understanding of the molecular phylogeny of BDFV is a crucial step towards integrated management planning. This study represents the first comprehensive attempt to screen New Zealand's endangered and threatened psittacines systematically for BFDV. We sampled and screened kakapos (Strigops habroptilus), kakas (Nestor meridionalis), keas (N. notabilis), Chatham parakeets (Cyanoramphus forbesi), Malherbe's parakeets (Cyanoramphus malherbi), yellow-crowned parakeets (C. auriceps) and red-fronted parakeets (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae), as well as eastern rosellas (Platycercus eximius), an introduced species that is now common throughout the North Island, for BFDV. Out of all species and populations sampled (786 individuals), we found 16 BFDV-positive red-fronted parakeets from Little Barrier Island/Hauturu, seven eastern rosellas from the Auckland region, and eight yellow-crowned parakeets from the Eglinton Valley in the South Island. The full genomes of the viral isolates from the red-fronted parakeets share 95-97 % sequence identity to those from the invasive eastern rosellas and 92.7-93.4 % to those isolates from the South Island yellow-crowned parakeets. The yellow-crowned parakeet BFDV isolates share 92-94 % sequence identity with those from eastern rosellas. The low level of diversity among all BFDV isolates from red-fronted parakeets could suggest a more recent infection among these birds compared to the yellow-crowned parakeets, whereas the diversity in the eastern rosellas indicates a much more established infection. Pro-active screening and monitoring of BFDV infection rates in aviaries as well as in wild populations are necessary to limit the risk of transmission among threatened and endangered parrot populations in New Zealand.

Avian Malaria Deaths in Parrots, Europe

Avian Malaria Deaths in Parrots, Europe

Declines in common, widespread native birds in a mature temperate forest

Common, widespread species are important for ecosystem structure and function. Although such species have declined in some parts of the world, for most ecosystems there is a lack of information about changes in the population status of common species. We studied the abundance of common, widespread forest birds in Nelson Lakes National Park, New Zealand using standardised 5-min bird counts, carried out over a 30-year time span. There was a significant change in the bird community structure during this period. Five native species (bellbird, rifleman, grey warbler, New Zealand tomtit and tui) declined in abundance during the 30 years. All of these declined in abundance at low but not high altitudes, and the decline was substantial for all but New Zealand tomtit and tui. Three other native species increased in abundance (silvereye, yellow-crowned parakeet and New Zealand robin). There was no change in the abundance of introduced blackbirds. We suggest that invasive alien species are the most likely cause of the ongoing declines in common native species. A peak in brushtail possum abundance and the arrival of a new species of Vespula wasp were two large changes in Nelson Lakes forests that occurred during this study. Both are likely to have added to the ongoing impacts of predation by introduced rats and stoats. We suggest that it is necessary to actively manage introduced species in order to maintain populations of widespread, common native bird species in New Zealand.

Stable individual differences on developmental tasks in young yellow-crowned parakeets, Cyanoramphus auriceps.

We report on stable individual differences in young yellow-crowned parakeets across 38 tasks of cognitive development on three scales involving object permanence, means-end relations, and spatial relations. Stable performance ranks on blocks of tasks emerged after 13 weeks in two groups of sibling parakeets, one hand-reared and the other parent-reared. Examination of subject characteristics, such as hatch order, sex, general activity level, avoidances, latencies, social status, and errors, showed no significant correlations with these performance ranks. Characteristic individual approaches to unstructured play activities (from a fourth scale) were consistent with individual behavioral differences seen on the structured cognitive tasks.

Parrot behavior at a Rio Manu (Peru) clay lick: temporal patterns, associations, and antipredator responses

Although eating clay at “licks” (a form of geophagy) has been described, there are few behavioral data on temporal patterns, social interactions, species associations, or reactions to potential predators. We examined the behavior of nine species of macaws, parrots, and parakeets at the Machiguenga Ccolpa, a clay lick on the Rio Manu, Peru in the dry season. Three distinct mixed-species groups used the licks: in the early morning (parrots and small macaws), in mid-morning (large macaws), and in the early afternoon (parakeets), although the latter two groups used the licks at other times of day as well. The first parrots to begin eating at the lick in the early morning were yellow-crowned parrots (Amazona ochrocephala) and dusky-headed parakeets (Aratinga weddellii), followed by blue-headed parrots Pionus sordidus, and then by mealy (Amazona farinosa) and orange-cheeked (Pionopsitta barrabandi) parrots, and chestnut-fronted macaws (Ara severa). Although blue-headed parrots fed in dense groups of over 50, the others rarely exceeded 20 individuals. Scarlet macaws (A. macao) sometimes fed alone or joined the early morning groups, but most associated with a large group of red and green macaws (A. chloroptera) that arrived, often scaring off the smaller birds. On average, about 100 macaws and parrots fed in the early morning, macaw feeding groups averaging just over 40, and the parakeets averaged over 70. Average time at the lick ranged from 28 min for yellow-crowned parrots to 47 min for tui parakeets. Of the early morning group, blue-headed and mealy parrots were the most aggressive and orange-cheeked parrots were the least aggressive. Red and green macaws were more aggressive than scarlet macaws; the parakeets were equally aggressive. All species had more aggressive interactions with conspecifics than with other species. Responses to intruders and predators varied by species of parrot/macaw and type of intruder. In response to intruders or loud calls, responses could be partial (some individuals flew away, circled, and returned), temporary (all individuals flew away but returned within a few minutes), or total (all flew away and abandoned feeding for at least a half hour). The large macaws showed the lowest rate of total abandonment and the parakeets showed the highest. People passing up or down river in boats scared birds from the lick. The local residents (Machiguenga tribespeople in boats) elicited a much greater response than did the researchers. In the recent past, macaws and parrots were hunted for food, feathers, and the pet trade, and the birds’ response, as well as the presence of parrot and macaw feathers in local villages we visited, suggests some continued exploitation, or a long-term memory in the birds.

Problem solving skills in young yellow-crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps).

Despite the long divergent evolutionary history of birds and mammals, early avian and primate cognitive development have many convergent features. Some of these features were investigated with a series of tasks designed to assess human infant development. The tasks were presented to young parakeets to assess their means-end problem solving abilities. Examples of these early skills are: attaining and playing with objects, retrieving rewards through use of a stick or rake, or by pulling in rewards on supports or on the ends of strings. Twelve such tasks were presented to 11 young yellow-crowned parakeets ( Cyanoramphus auriceps) to investigate their natural abilities; there was no attempt to train them to do those tasks that they did not spontaneously perform. Six of the birds were parent-raised and five were hand-raised. The birds completed 9 of the 12 tasks, demonstrating all the Piagetian sensorimotor circular reactions, but they failed to hand-watch ("claw-watch"), to stack objects, or to fill a container. Their ordinality on the tasks differed from that of human infants in that locomotion to obtain objects occurred earlier in the avian sequence of development and the mid-level tasks were performed by the two groups of avian subjects in a mixed order perhaps indicating that these abilities may not emerge in any particular order for these birds as they supposedly do for human infants. The hand-raised group needed fewer sessions to complete these means-end tasks.

Distinguishing between sexes and species: bill size in Orange-fronted and Yellow-crowned Parakeets, Cyanoramphus auriceps

Controversy surrounds the taxonomic status of the Orange-fronted Parakeet (previously known as Cyanoramphus malherbi), officially a colour morph of the more common Yellow-crowned Parakeet C. auriceps. We analyse bill length and bill width measurements from 60 museum specimens of Orange-fronted Parakeet and 44 museum specimens of Yellow-crowned Parakeet. Male Orange-fronted Parakeets have shorter bills than male Yellow-crowned Parakeets—the difference between sample means is 0.7–0.8 mm. Power calculations show that others have most likely not seen the difference as significant because of small sample sizes. Our analysis illustrates a useful statistical technique for identifying morphological differences between two species where both species are sexually dimorphic but the sex of each individual is uncertain.

Molecular systematics of New Zealand Cyanoramphus parakeets: conservation of Orange-fronted and Forbes' Parakeets

The controversy that presently surrounds the taxonomy of the Orange-fronted Cyanoramphus malherbi and Forbes' C. forbesi Parakeets has important implications for the conservation of both birds. Both taxa are critically endangered, but consensus regarding their specific status has not yet been achieved. We present mitochondrial DNA sequences for the cytochrome b gene and the control region from 17 Cyanoramphus parakeets representing nine populations and six taxa together with field observations of courtship and breeding behaviour in a sympatric population of Orange-fronted and Yellow-crowned Parakeets C. auriceps. Field data support species status of the Orange-fronted Parakeet under the Biological Species Concept. Phylogenetic analyses of our DNA sequence data support earlier hypotheses based on allozyme data that both Orange-fronted and Forbes' Parakeets represent distinct species under four species concepts and indicate that high conservation priority is warranted for both taxa.

Development of object permanence in the New Zealand parakeet (Cyanoramphus auriceps)

Eleven young kakarikis (Cyanoramphus auriceps) were tested on 15 object-permanence tasks in a standardized scale that has been used to assess the development of human infants, some nonhuman primates, and other mammals. The birds successfully completed all tasks in this scale, and many aspects of their testing were similar to human results, such as evidencing the A-not-B error. However, the birds differed slightly but significantly from human subjects in that some of the “invisible displacements” of the later tasks were performed before the earlier visible displacement tasks. These results may relate to common ecological activities of this species. Six of the birds were parent-raised; 5 were hand-raised. The hand-raised birds achieved criteria more quickly than did the parent-raised birds possibly because the former were more accustomed to the investigator and less distractible in the test situation.

Conservation and genetics of New Zealand parakeets

SummaryRecent genetic analysis of New ZealandCyanoramphusparakeets has direct implications for conservation management. A subspecies of Yellow-crowned Parakeet, Forbes's Parakeet C.auriceps forbesi, is genetically distinct from mainland Yellow-crowned Parakeets C.a. auricepsand should be elevated to species status. Even amongst mainland populations of Yellow-crowned Parakeets there was extensive genetic diversity. Interspecific hybridization is a major concern ofCyanoramphusconservation. The near-extinction of Forbes's Parakeets by genetic swamping through hybridization with Chatham Islands Red-crowned Parakeets C.novaezelandiae chathamensishas been averted by active management, involving culling of hybrid and Red-crowned Parakeets and habitat enhancement. Despite two decades of hybridization between these species a distinct Forbes genetic type still exists, probably due to a tendency for hybrids to backcross with Red-crowned Parakeets. Hybridization betweenCyanoramphusspecies may also be a problem in other highly modified habitats, such as parts of the Auckland Islands. More information is needed to determine the extent of this problem. Captive populations include a significant proportion of interspecific hybrids and therefore should not be used as founder stock for releases into the wild, as has been done in the past. The Orange-fronted Parakeet should be reinstated as a separate species,Cyanoramphus malherbi, rather than a colour morph of Yellow-crowned Parakeet, at least until conclusive evidence is available to resolve the question of its taxonomic status. The conservation of this very rare species (and indeed all species ofCyanoramphus)- has been severely handicapped by lack of scientific information on which to base management decisions.

The ecology of yellow‐crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps) inNothofagusforest in Fiordland, New Zealand

Abstract Yellow‐crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus auriceps) were studied in the Eglinton Valley, Fiordland, New Zealand. Productivity and mortality were closely related to cycles of beech seeding. Following a heavy beech mast, parakeets fed extensively on beech seed, and bred not only during their normal late summer breeding season, but right through the following winter, spring, and summer. During this time, the parakeet population increased dramatically, but in the following autumn it declined sharply, probably as a result of the depletion of beech seed and high rates of predation by stoats and perhaps other arboreal predators. Nesting parakeets are very vulnerable to stoat predation because they are hole‐nesters and because their chicks are very noisy just before fledging. Stoat trapping during a stoat irruption seemed to be of no benefit. Although trapping reduced stoat population density, enough stoats remained to prey on all accessible parakeet nests. More extensive trapping, and trapping when stoat n...

Nest site selection by mohua and yellow‐crowned parakeets in beech forest in Fiordland, New Zealand

Abstract Nest site selection in two hole‐nesting forest birds, mohua (yellowhead, Mohoua ochrocephala) and yellow‐crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus auriceps), was investigated. Parakeets nested in a wide range of cavities ranging in size up to half a metre across. In contrast, mohua used small cavities that support the sides of their cup‐shaped nests. Most parakeet nests were found in red beech trees (Nothofagus fusca), which have many large cavities, and both species nested most often in trees >70 cm in diameter. Nest sites arc very numerous in our study area and are probably not limiting for either species in similar forests throughout Fiordland. However, neither species is likely to be able to nest in beech forests managed for timber production, in which most trees will be large enough for nesting only just before they are harvested. Although long‐tailed cuckoos (Euclynamvs taitensis) parasitise mohua nests and prey upon their nestlings, most mohua nest holes arc too small for cuckoos to lay eggs in. High...

The cats of Herekopare Island, New Zealand; their history, ecology and affects on birdlife

Abstract House cats (Felis catus) were introduced to Herekopare Island, a mammal-free island of about 28 ha near Stewart Island, in about 1925. In winter 1970, the total population of 33 cats (20 males, 13 females) — a density of 1.2 cats/ha — was killed, mainly by trapping. Examination of stomach contents and scats showed that the cats fed mainly on petrels, supplemented by land birds and insects. The bird life of Herekopare Island was studied by H. Guthrie-Smith in 1911, L. E. Richdale in the early 1940s, and by New Zealand Wildlife Service staff in 1968 and 1970. Their accounts indicate that a vast breeding population of diving petrels and thousands of broad-billed prions were probably exterminated by the cats, though fairy prions and sooty shearwaters persisted. Among land birds, the yellow-crowned parakeet, robin, fernbird, brown creeper, Stewart Island snipe, and banded rail were exterminated. Two other species, the red-crowned parakeet and tomtit, probably disappeared but subsequently recolonised t...