Years Of Plantation Establishment Research Articles

Jerusalem Artichoke: Energy Balance in Annual and Perennial Cropping Systems—A Case Study in North-Eastern Poland

This article presents the results of a three-year experiment (2018–2020) conducted at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Bałcyny (north-eastern Poland) with the aim of determining Jerusalem artichoke (JA) yields and the energy balance of biomass production in (i) a perennial cropping system (only aerial biomass was harvested each year) and (ii) an annual cropping system (both aerial biomass and tubers were harvested each year). When JA was grown as a perennial crop, the demand for energy reached 25.2 GJ ha−1 in the year of plantation establishment and 12.3–13.4 GJ ha−1 in the second and third year of production. The energy inputs associated with the annual cropping system were determined in the range of 31.4–37.1 GJ ha−1. Biomass yields were twice as high in the annual than in the perennial cropping system (20.98 vs. 10.30 Mg DM ha−1). Tuber yield accounted for 46% of the total yield. The energy output of JA biomass was 1.8 times higher in the annual than in the perennial cropping system (275.4 vs. 157.3 GJ ha−1). The average energy gain in JA cultivation ranged from 140 (perennial crop) to 241 GJ ha−1 (annual crop). The energy efficiency ratio of JA biomass production reached 7.7–13.3 in the perennial cropping system, and it was 20% lower in the annual cropping system. These results imply that when JA was grown as an annual crop, an increase in energy inputs associated with plantation establishment (tillage and planting) and the harvest and transport of tubers was not fully compensated by the energy output of tubers.

The effect of harvest strategy on the energy potential of Jerusalem artichoke

Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) is a crop with a high potential for energy generation on account of its broad range of industrial applications, high yield potential and relatively low climatic and agronomic requirements. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different harvest strategies on the energy potential of Jerusalem artichoke (JA) aerial biomass. The yield and energy efficiency (EE) ratio of JA biomass harvested (i) once (August) and (ii) twice (June and October) during the growing season were investigated in a three-year field experiment. The study was conducted in north-eastern Poland. The energy inputs (EI) in JA production were determined at 23.0–23.5 GJ ha−1 in the year of plantation establishment and at 12.1–14.6 GJ ha−1 y−1 in the second and third year. Energy inputs were 11–12% higher when JA biomass was harvested twice during the growing season. Dry matter yield (DMY) was highest in the second year (28.1 Mg ha-1), and it was 32% and 58% lower in the first and third year of the study, respectively. Dry matter yield was considerably higher when JA biomass was harvested once in August. The energy gain (EG) in JA production ranged from 144 (year 3) to 346 GJ ha−1 y−1 (year 2). The EE ratio of JA biomass production ranged from 11.3 and 12.3 (years 1 and 3) to 26.1 (year 2). Energy gain and the EE ratio were significantly higher (by 67% and 63% on average, respectively) in treatments with a single- than a double-cut harvest strategy. The study demonstrated that both productivity and the volume of energy accumulated in JA biomass can be optimized by selecting an appropriate harvest strategy (single-cut or double-cut harvest during the growing season).

Evolution of the Rate of Live and Tapped Trees of Hevea brasiliensis Clones, Muell. Arg. the First 15 Years of Plantation Establishment

The density of tapped rubber trees in a plantation is a determining parameter of its productivity. It is related to the number of trees planted per hectare, the evolution of which can be influenced by several factors that act on the trees from the year of establishment to the time of tapping. To this end, a study to determine the evolution of the rate of live trees and tapped trees of eight rubber clones during the first fifteen years of establishment was carried out in southwestern Côte d'Ivoire. At opening, rubber trees planted at 510 trees/ha (7 m x 2.80 m) were bled in a descending half-spiral at different tapping and stimulation frequencies. The experimental design was a Fisher block design with 6 treatments (d2, d3/4y, d4/4y, d4/8y, d5/8y, d6/10y) and 3 replications. The results revealed that the rate of live trees and tapped trees was not influenced by either clone or latex harvesting treatment. The rate of live trees decreased progressively from the immature phase of the plantation (94.71 ± 1.34%) to the end of the downward tapping (91.55 ± 0.67%). The rate of tapped trees increases from the time of planting (69.51 ± 8.03%), over the years (92.00 ± 1.39%) until it equals the rate of live trees (92.00 ± 1.08%) before gradually decreasing to 88 ± 3.78%. It should be noted that the factors influencing the evolution of the rates of live and taped trees caused less damage to the rubber trees. And this influence is not dependent on clone, metabolic activity class and latex harvesting system.

Sewage sludge and the energy balance of Jerusalem artichoke production - A case study in north-eastern Poland

Sewage sludge is a specific by-product of wastewater treatment and its use as fertilizer is the most rational and the cheapest strategy for managing this waste product. In this study, the production of aerial biomass, energy inputs and the energy efficiency ratio of Jerusalem artichoke (JA) fertilized with sewage sludge at rates equivalent to 100 and 160 kg N ha−1 were evaluated in a field experiment conducted in north-eastern Poland in 2018–2020. In conventional treatments supplied with mineral fertilizer, energy inputs were determined at 23.5–28.1 GJ ha−1 in the year of plantation establishment and at 12.6–18.3 GJ ha−1 in the second and third year. In treatments fertilized with sewage sludge, the demand for energy was lower by 27–32 % in the first year and by 48–54 % in the second and third year. Regardless of fertilizer type the optimal nitrogen rate was 100 kg ha−1 (11.7–11.9 Mg ha−1 DM y−1). The biomass of JA plants supplied with 100 kg N ha−1 was also characterized by the highest energy output and energy gain. Energy gain was 5–11 % higher per hectare, and the energy efficiency ratio was nearly twice higher in treatments supplied with sewage sludge than with mineral fertilizer.

Effects of different interstock length on vegetative growth and flowering in peach cv. Pavie Catherine

Peach production needs appropriate management strategies to control canopy size, to increase tree density and yield, and to facilitate orchard operations. We evaluated compatibility, vegetative growth and flowering in peach trees cv. Pavie Catherine grafted on seven interstocks, at two interstock lengths (5 and 35 cm). Citation, Damas GF 1869, Hiawatha, Krymsk® 1, Monpol, MrS 2/5 and Myran were used as interstock. Rootstock for those interstocks was Monegro, which was used as a Control and also grafted on cv. Pavie Catherine but without interstock. The trial was carried out from 2017 to 2019 in Mendoza, Argentina, during the first three years of plantation establishment. The Hiawatha, Krymsk® 1 and Citation interstocks reduced in average 56% total shoot length, 33% shoot number per plant and 136% canopy volume compared to the Control. In contrast, interstocks Damas GF 1869, Monpol, MrS 2/5 and Myran showed similar vegetative growth to the Control. Among interstock treatments, the number and density of the flowers were 30% and 42% higher than the Control respectively. In the high grafted plants total shoot length, number of shoots and canopy volume decreased significantly, by 50%, 38% and 61% respectively, in relation to the low grafted ones. Reproductive characteristics followed a similar pattern, thus flowering shoot lengths were reduced in high than in low grafted plants and floral density increased in high grafted plants. In addition, bloom date was delayed in high grafted plants. Interstocks and interstock length influenced plant size significantly, providing an opportunity to increment tree density and improve canopy management.

Biomass yield and energy balance of fodder galega in different production technologies: An 11-year field experiment in a large-area farm in Poland

This article presents the results of an 11-year field experiment (2008–2018) conducted in Poland to investigate the biomass yield and energy efficiency of fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.) in high-input and low-input production technologies. The demand for energy in the production of fodder galega biomass ranged from 13.0 to 14.2 (year of plantation establishment) to 6.4–8.2 GJ ha−1 (years 2–11). Agricultural intensification increased energy inputs by 11% on average. Dry matter yield (DMY) and energy output peaked in years 4 and 5 (14.7–15.3 Mg ha−1 and 122.4–131.1 GJ ha−1, respectively). In the high-input production technology, DMY was 0.62 Mg ha−1 y−1 higher, energy output was 4.9 GJ ha−1 y−1 higher, the maximum DMY was achieved one year later, and the rate of decrease in biomass yield and energy output in the last years of the experiment (years 9–11) was 30% lower in comparison with the low-input system. The energy efficiency ratio of fodder galega ranged from 2.28 to 2.42 (year 1) to 8.04–16.53 (years 2–11). Productivity was 4% higher in the low-input than in the high-input technology. Fodder galega biomass was characterized by higher energy efficiency in the high-input technology (by approx. 2–12%) only in the last years of the experiment (years ≥10).

Assessment of early survival and growth of planted Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) seedlings under extreme continental climate conditions of northern Mongolia

Environmental factors play vital roles in successful plantation and cultivation of tree seedlings. This study focuses on problems associated with reforestation under extreme continental climatic conditions. The objectives were to assess relative seedling performance (survival and growth) with respect to plantation age, and to analyze the influence of specific climatic factors during the early stages of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantations. The study was carried out in reforested areas of the Tujyin Nars region of northern Mongolia on six Scots pine plantations ranging from 5 to 10 years. In each of the six plantations, five 900 m2 permanent sample plots were established and survival rates and growth performance measured annually over 7 years. Results show high variation in survival among the plantations (p < 0.001, F = 29.7). Seedling survival in the first year corresponded directly to the number of dry days in May. However, survival rate appeared to stabilize after the second year. The insignificant variation of height categories throughout the observation period indicated low competition among individuals. Two linear mixed-effect models show that height and radial growth were best explained by relative air humidity, which we consider to be a reliable indicator of site-specific water availability. Insufficient amounts and uneven distribution of rainfall pose a major threat during the first year of plantation establishment. Humidity and water availability are decisive factors for a successful seedling plantation. This highlights the impact of drought on forest plantations in northern Mongolia and the importance of developing climate resilient reforestation strategies.

Comparison of heavy metal phytoremediation in monoculture and intercropping systems of Phyllostachys praecox and Sedum plumbizincicola in polluted soil

ABSTRACTA bamboo species (Phyllostachys praecox) and a Cd/Zn hyperaccumulator (Sedum plumbizincicola) were tested under different planting systems to compare their heavy metal phytoremediation ability. P. praecox (MP), S. plumbizincicola (MS) and P. praecox × S. plumbizincicola (IPS) plantations were established in Cu, Zn, and Cd-contaminated soil. Soil properties and heavy metal contents in plants were determined and compared after four years of plantation establishment. The rankings of available and total metal contents in soil layers were MP > MS > IPS (0–20 cm) and MP > IPS > MS (20–40 cm, except for Cu), respectively. The Cu and Zn contents in mature bamboo tissues were significantly lower, but the Cd contents in bamboo tissues (except for leaves) higher, in the IPS than in the MP. The bioconcentration and the translocation factors in most of bamboo tissues showed an increasing trend from the MP to the IPS. Heavy metal distribution in plants is greatly affected by the planting patterns. The tested intercropping system of two plant species showed higher biomass productivity, implying more heavy metals can be removed from the soil through the harvesting of plants. Therefore, the IPS leads to significant improvement of soil phytoremediation.

Obtaining rubber plantation age information from very dense Landsat TM & ETM + time series data and pixel-based image compositing

Determining the age of rubber tree plantations (Hevea brasiliensis) is of great interest to plantation managers and land-use decision makers as it enables, among others, reliable forecasts of resource availability. The acquisition of age information with field campaigns, however, is time consuming, laborious and expensive. We present an approach that facilitates rapid assessment of rubber plantation age at regional scales applying very dense Landsat times series (LTS) satellite data over China's second largest rubber planting area – Xishuangbanna. We aggregated 270 Landsat TM and ETM+ surface reflectance images into annual best-available-pixel composites of minimum Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI). The annual composites were classified into vegetated and non-vegetated pixels applying a global NDMI threshold of 0. As it is common practice in Xishuangbanna to clear the land before a new plantation is established, the last year in which a pixel located in a rubber plantation, was classified as non-vegetated, was recorded as the year of plantation establishment. The resultant plantation age map was validated using a stratified random sample of 184 data points, collected by visual interpretation of historical Landsat data. A Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 2.5years was achieved. We estimate that in 2015 50% of Xishuangbanna's rubber plantations had an age suitable for latex tapping (8–25years), 27% were too young to be tapped (<8years) and 24% had already reached an age of reduced latex productivity (>25years) and will be presumably harvested for wood in the near future. The proposed technique enables acquisitions of accurate rubber plantation age information from Landsat time series and NDMI over large areas with the potential of providing insights into land cover dynamics and allowing for the development of improved management strategies and local decision support activities.

Atlantic forest tree species responses to silvicultural practices in a degraded pasture restoration plantation: From leaf physiology to survival and initial growth

Deforestation has led to ecosystem degradation in many tropical regions. Re-establishment of native tree species on degraded land presents challenges due to environmental stressors such as water and nutrient limitations, particularly from weed competition. Ecophysiological studies can help assess responses of native tree species to silvicultural practices and improve our understanding of processes that influence their establishment and growth. Silvicultural treatments borrowed from commercial tree plantations such as greater nutrient applications and complete weed control can improve best silvicultural practices in forest restoration. Two contrasting silvicultural treatments, “traditional” based on common management practices for reforestation of native trees and “intensive” based on commercial plantation silviculture, were evaluated based on tree mortality, biomass, photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, soluble proteins, and nutritional status of 20 native Brazilian species, 2.5years after planting. Intensive silviculture increased tree survival by 20%, showed higher aboveground biomass from 13% to 7-fold and increased photosynthesis of ∼20% from 15.8μmolm−2s−1 to 18.7μmolm−2s−1, compared to traditional silviculture. Total soluble proteins were 14% higher with 6.7μgcm−2 in intensive silviculture compared to 5.9μgcm−2 under traditional silviculture. Eighty percent of trees showed greater N content, with a 13% higher average than under traditional silviculture (2.60gm−2 versus 2.92gm−2). Average values of chlorophyll A, B, and total were ∼8% higher under intensive silviculture, but not significantly different between treatments. Overall, intensive silviculture provided a positive impact on the restoration plantation. During the initial years of plantation establishment, intensive silviculture methods were effective in leading to significant increases in growth and survival.

EFFECT OF MODIFICATION OF TREE DENSITY AND GEOMETRY ON INTERCROP YIELDS AND ECONOMIC RETURNS IN LEUCAENA-BASED AGRO-FORESTRY SYSTEMS FOR WOOD PRODUCTION IN ANDHRA PRADESH, SOUTHERN INDIA

SUMMARYLeucaena leucocephala is cultivated at close spacings that do not permit intercropping. This has been a discouraging factor for small landholders who need regular income to establish leucaena plantations and benefit from the rapidly expanding market for wood. Therefore, on-farm experiments were conducted near Bhadrachalam, Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh, India, from August 2001 to January 2006, to study the effect of reducing tree density and modifying tree geometry on the growth of leucaena and productivity of intercrops. The inter-row spacing of 1.3 m in farmers' practice was increased up to 13 m to examine whether wide-row planting and grouping of certain rows would facilitate extended intercropping without sacrificing wood yield. Tree density treatments tried were 1.3 × 1.3 m, 3 × 0.75 m, 3 × 1 m, 5 × 0.8 m and 3 × 2 m which gives densities of 5919, 4444, 3333, 2500 and 1666 trees ha−1, respectively. Tree geometry treatments tested were 7 × 1 m paired row spacing (7 × 1 PR), 10 × 1 m triple row spacing (10 × 1 TR), and 13 × 1 m four rows (13 × 1 FR) with a constant tree population of 2500 trees ha−1. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) was the intercrop. While changes in tree density affected diameter at breast height (DBH) significantly, modification of tree geometry did not affect tree height and DBH. Marketable wood and dry biomass productivity was highest with 3 × 0.75 m spacing, and reducing tree density and alteration of tree geometry reduced the biomass considerably. In 2001, 2002 and 2003 seasons, respectively, tree spacing at 3 m produced mean yields of 97, 23 and 11% of the sole crop cowpea yield whereas modified tree geometry treatments produced mean yields of 97, 61 and 20% of sole crop yield. The widest spacing (13 × 1 FR) recorded 95, 73 and 30% of the sole crop yields during 2001, 2002 and 2003, respectively. Net returns from intercropping of leucaena in 3 × 0.75 m spacing was 36% higher than that of the farmers' practice. Although wider tree geometry treatments recorded lower net returns, they provided higher intercrop yields and returns in the first two years of plantation establishment. Therefore, it can be concluded that in regions where annual rainfall is around 1000 mm, leucaena can be planted at a spacing of 3 × 0.75 m for improving intercrop performance, higher tree productivity and returns.

Impacts of Herbicide Application and Mechanical Cleanings on Growth and Mortality of Two Timber Species inSaccharum spontaneumGrasslands of the Panama Canal Watershed

AbstractReforestation has been suggested as a strategy to controlSaccharum spontaneum, an invasive grass that impedes regeneration in disturbed areas of the Panama Canal Watershed (PCW). In this study, the effects of different intensities of herbicide application and mechanical cleanings on the growth and mortality ofTerminalia amazoniaandTectona grandissaplings were evaluated inS. spontaneumgrasslands within the PCW. Both species exhibited greater height, basal diameter, wood volume index, wider crown diameters, deeper live crowns, and lower mortality with increasing intensity of mechanical cleanings and herbicide application. Height and competition ofS. spontaneumcorrelated negatively with intensity of mechanical cleanings and herbicide application. Grass control costs did not differ between tree species but did increase significantly with intensity of mechanical cleanings and herbicide application. We recommend fire suppression, annual herbicide application, and at least four mechanical cleanings per year inTec. grandisplantations during the first 3 years of plantation establishment. Given the slower initial growth and mortality patterns ofTer. amazonia, aggressive grass control treatments should be continued until individuals are sufficiently large to effectively shadeS. spontaneum. Results from this study suggest that reforestation with commercial timber species can rapidly establish and controlS. spontaneumgrowth in the PCW. Reforestation of areas already invaded or at risk of being invaded byS. spontaneumappears to be a viable strategy to reduce its abundance and subsequent negative ecological effects in the PCW.

CHANGES IN ORGANIC CARBON AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AGGREGATES UNDER FIBER FARMING

Interest in intensive forestry systems to produce woody or fiber farming (FF) is increasing because of high energy costs and the risks of global warming. The FF-induced changes in soil structural properties at the microscale or aggregate level important to soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and soil-water dynamics are, however, not well understood. Thus, we compared differences in soil physical properties and SOC concentrations in aggregates among tree species after 7 years of plantation establishment on an Onaway fine sandy loam (fine loamy, mixed, active, frigid Inceptic Hapludalfs) at the Upper Peninsula Tree Improvement Center near Escanaba, Mich. Soil samples from 16.8 x 16.8-m plots under six tree taxa and three rates of wood ash application (0, 9, and 18 Mg ha -1 ) were collected in May, 2005. The six tree taxa were European larch (Larix deciduas Mill.), hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x Populus tremuloides), and four poplar taxa: NE-222 (Populus deltoids x Populus nigra var. caudina), DN-5 (Populus euramericana, cv. Gelrica), DN-34 (P. euramericana, cv. Eugenei), and NM-6 (P. nigra x Populus maximowiczii). Tree species induced measurable changes in most soil aggregate properties. Larch and DN-34 increased aggregate mean weight diameter more than N-222 and NM-6. Macroaggregates contained 20% more SOC concentration than microaggregates. Ash application increased tensile strength, soil water retention, and SOC concentration, indicating the benefits of applying ash in FF systems. Within both macroaggregates and microaggregates, NM-6 had the highest SOC concentration, whereas aspen had the lowest of all tree species. The SOC concentration increased with increase in biomass input. Results show that differences in aggregate physical properties and aggregate-associated SOC concentration among tree species were relatively small and depended on the soil property.

Growth performance of two bamboo species in new plantations

The growth performance of new stands of Dendrocalamus asper and Gigantochloa levis on marginal lands and fertilized with three organic fertilizers was assessed over a period of 4 years. The experimental site was in the UP Laguna-Quezon Land Grant in Real, Quezon, Philippines. The results have shown a very high survival (100%) rate and comparatively good growth and development of both species. The influence of the organic fertilizers on average number of shoot emergents, number of culms per clump, average height and culm diameter was only significant during the first year of plantation establishment. It is concluded that no statistically significant and consistent improvement in establishment of the clumps or growth and quality of the culms could be assigned to the effects of the organic fertilizers studied over the first four years of plantation establishment at this site.

Estimating baseline carbon emissions for the Eastern Panama Canal watershed

To participate in the potential market for C credits based on changes in the use and management of the land, one needs to identify opportunities and implement land-use based emissions reductions or sequestration projects. A key requirement of land-based carbon (C) projects is that any activity developed for generating C benefits must be additional to business-as-usual. A rule- based model was developed and used that estimates changes in land-use and subsequent C emissions over the next twenty years using the Eastern Panama Canal Watershed (EPCW) as a case study. These projections of changes in C stocks serve as a baseline to identify where opportunities exist for implementing projects to generate potential C credits and to position Panama to be able to participate in the emerging C market by developing a baseline under scenarios of business-as-usual and new- road development. The projections show that the highest percent change in land use for the new- road scenario compared to the business-as-usual scenario is for urban areas, and the greatest cause of C emission is from deforestation. Thus, the most effective way to reduce C emissions to the atmosphere in the EPCW is by reducing deforestation. In addition to affecting C emissions, reducing deforestation would also protect the soil and water resources of the EPCW. Yet, under the current framework of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), only credits arising from reforestation are allowed, which after 20 years of plantation establishment are not enough to offset the C emissions from the ongoing, albeit small, rate of deforestation in the EPCW. The study demonstrates the value of spatial regional projections of changes in land cover and C stocks: � • The approach helps a country identify its potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emission liabilit- ies into the future and provides opportunity for the country to plan alternative development pathways. • It could be used by potential project developers to identify which types of projects will generate the largest C benefits and provide the needed baseline against which a project is then evaluated. • Spatial baselines, such as those presented here, can be used by governments to help identify development goals. • The development of such a baseline, and its expansion to other vulnerable areas, well positions Panama to respond to the future market demand for C offsets. � The submitted report has been co-authored by a contractor of the U.S. Government under con- tract DE-AC05-00OR22725. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes.

Black Walnut (Juglans nigra L.) Agroforestry – Its Design and Potential as a Land-use Alternative

Integrated forestry-farming (agroforestry) management typically involves the planting of trees at a wide spacing with intercrops grown in alleys between trees. A program initiated in Missouri, USA in 1965 establishes eastern black walnut on a 40- × 10-foot spacing with row intercrops (wheat, milo, soybeans etc.) for the first 10-to-12 years followed by cover crops of cool-season forages thereafter. Specialty crops of Christmas trees, balled and burlapped landscaping species, small berry crops and vegetables are also grown during the early years of plantation establishment. Contrary to conventional management of black walnut, short, clear boles (8 to 16 feet in length) with large full crowns for nut production are developed for maximization of profits. Economic analyses show the highest investment returns associated with management practices combining nut and wood production within an agroforestry regime. Key words: Forestry-farming, agroforestry, eastern black walnut, economics