Yahara River Research Articles

Lakes protect downstream riverine habitats from chloride toxicity

AbstractFreshwater salinization from anthropogenic activities threatens water quality and habitat suitability for many lakes and rivers in North America. Recognizing that salinization is a stress on freshwater environments globally, research on watershed salt transport is necessary for informed management strategies. Prior to this research, there were few studies that examined salt export regimes along a river–lake continuum to investigate the drivers, temporal dynamics, and modulators of freshwater salinization. Here, we use high‐frequency in situ monitoring to assess specific conductance–discharge (cQ) relationships, chloride concentrations and fluxes, and the role of lakes in downstream salt transport. The Upper Yahara River Watershed in southern Wisconsin, USA, is a mixed urban and agricultural watershed where the lakes' chloride concentrations have risen from < 5 mg L−1 in the 1940s to > 50–80 mg L−1 in 2021. Our results suggest cQ behavior depends on land use, with urban areas exhibiting more frequent mobilization events during stormflow and agricultural areas exhibiting predominantly dilution dynamics. In addition, chloride loading is driven by hydrology and watershed size whereas concentrations and yields are a function of anthropogenic drivers like urbanization. We demonstrate how an in‐network lake attenuates downstream salinity, dampening the hydrologic, anthropogenic, and seasonal patterns observed in rivers upstream of the lake. Importantly, biogeochemical processes in lakes overlay a seasonal signal on salinity that must be considered when investigating temporal dynamics of anthropogenic salinization. This research contributes to understanding of temporal dynamics of salt export through watersheds and can be used to inform management strategies for habitat protection.

Holistic Management Assessment of an Urbanized Watershed and Kettle Pond in Southern Wisconsin

A multidisciplinary assessment of a small pond and its fully urbanized watershed was conducted to understand physical, biological, and social factors influencing this natural resource. Originally an emergent wetland lacking natural drainage, Stricker’s Pond today is a resource shared by two municipalities which has been hydrologically connected (via a man-made outlet) to the larger Yahara River watershed in Wisconsin. The assessment involved water quantity and water quality measurement and modeling, vegetation and wildlife surveys, and community surveys and observation. Major findings include the following: increased flood risk caused by large storm events; high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, likely contributed by a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources, resulting in full eutrophication; varied, but generally poor, vegetation biodiversity; limited wildlife diversity; and discrepancies between the management objectives of the two municipalities which share the resource and the surrounding community’s vision for the pond. To overcome these issues, a collection of recommendations are suggested for implementation. These recommendations range from minimal reoccurring maintenance and community engagement to specific management strategies and intermunicipal collaboration. With the recommendations provided within the assessment, a new, better pathway forward can be charted for Stricker’s Pond by decision makers and community members alike. By engaging with this case study, participants will be exposed to the complexity of water resources challenges occurring in this as well as their own communities. Thus, this case study can serve to participants as an example and a baseline of how similar holistic resource management assessments can be carried out in the future.

Agricultural Landscape Transformation Needed to Meet Water Quality Goals in the Yahara River Watershed of Southern Wisconsin

Agricultural Landscape Transformation Needed to Meet Water Quality Goals in the Yahara River Watershed of Southern Wisconsin

Correlations between land use and stream nitrate-nitrite concentrations in the Yahara River Watershed in south-central Wisconsin

To better inform land management decisions, we explored relationships between land use data and stream nitrate-nitrite (NO3NO2) concentration data in the Yahara River Watershed (YRW) in south-central Wisconsin, USA. Three metrics were used to evaluate the extent of different land uses in the watershed: (1) the area percentage of each land use in both the watershed and in a range of riparian zone widths, (2) the area factor, which refers to the ratio of the area of woodland, recreational, open and vacant subdivided land, or wetlands in the riparian zone (6.1–213.4 m widths) to agricultural areas in the rest of watershed, which indicates the buffering capacity of the riparian zone, and (3) the inverse-distance-weighted (IDW) area percentage with proximity to sub-watershed outlet and to stream, which characterizes spatial arrangement in the watershed by assigning a higher weight to patches closer to the outlet or stream and a lower weight to those farther away. We found significant, positive correlations between the extent of agricultural areas and stream NO3NO2 concentrations. NO3NO2 concentrations were highly correlated to area factor metrics for all riparian zone widths such that as area factor decreased, NO3NO2 concentrations increased. There was also a marked increase in NO3NO2 concentrations at a threshold of approximately 60% agricultural area with IDW proximity to stream. Wetland area percentage in the entire watershed and IDW wetland area percentage with proximity to stream were negatively correlated to stream NO3NO2 concentrations. Compared to the simple area percentage metric, area factor and IDW wetland area percentage with proximity to stream were better indicators of stream NO3NO2 concentrations. Results from this study indicate that, in addition to land use area percentage, spatial distributions of land uses should be considered when managing watersheds. This study also demonstrates the value of citizen-based sampling data and reveals opportunities to improve the utility of such data.

Continuous separation of land use and climate effects on the past and future water balance

Understanding the combined and separate effects of climate and land use change on the water cycle is necessary to mitigate negative impacts. However, existing methodologies typically divide data into discrete (before and after) periods, implicitly representing climate and land use as step changes when in reality these changes are often gradual. Here, we introduce a new regression-based methodological framework designed to separate climate and land use effects on any hydrological flux of interest continuously through time, and estimate uncertainty in the contribution of these two drivers. We present two applications in the Yahara River Watershed (Wisconsin, USA) demonstrating how our approach can be used to understand synergistic or antagonistic relationships between land use and climate in either the past or the future: (1) historical streamflow, baseflow, and quickflow in an urbanizing subwatershed; and (2) simulated future evapotranspiration, drainage, and direct runoff from a suite of contrasting climate and land use scenarios for the entire watershed. In the historical analysis, we show that ∼60% of recent streamflow changes can be attributed to climate, with approximately equal contributions from quickflow and baseflow. However, our continuous method reveals that baseflow is significantly increasing through time, primarily due to land use change and potentially influenced by long-term increases in groundwater storage. In the simulation of future changes, we show that all components of the future water balance will respond more strongly to changes in climate than land use, with the largest potential land use effects on drainage. These results indicate that diverse land use change trajectories may counteract each other while the effects of climate are more homogeneous at watershed scales. Therefore, management opportunities to counteract climate change effects will likely be more effective at smaller spatial scales, where land use trajectories are unidirectional.

Extreme precipitation and phosphorus loads from two agricultural watersheds

AbstractPhosphorus runoff from agricultural land is a major cause of eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs. Frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events are increasing in agricultural regions of the Upper Midwestern U.S., and these increases are projected to continue as climate warms. We quantified the linkage between extreme daily precipitation and extreme daily discharge, phosphorus (P) load, and P concentration for Pheasant Branch and the Yahara River, two tributaries of Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, U.S.A. using the generalized Pareto distribution. Although precipitation extremes have increased since 1940, over the shorter period of stream monitoring (1994–2015 for Pheasant Branch and 1991–2015 for Yahara) there is no significant trend in extreme precipitation. Nonetheless a disproportionate number of extreme precipitation events (for example seven of the 11 largest 24‐h events since 1901) occurred during the period of stream monitoring. Daily precipitation extremes were associated with extremes in daily discharge and P load. P load return levels increased steeply and almost linearly with precipitation on log‐log axes. The trend toward more frequent and intense precipitation extremes will increase P loading and intensify the eutrophication of the lake, unless the excessive P enrichment of the watershed is reversed.

Neutral Evolution and Dispersal Limitation Produce Biogeographic Patterns in Microcystis aeruginosa Populations of Lake Systems.

Molecular observations reveal substantial biogeographic patterns of cyanobacteria within systems of connected lakes. An important question is the relative role of environmental selection and neutral processes in the biogeography of these systems. Here, we quantify the effect of genetic drift and dispersal limitation by simulating individual cyanobacteria cells using an agent-based model (ABM). In the model, cells grow (divide), die, and migrate between lakes. Each cell has a full genome that is subject to neutral mutation (i.e., the growth rate is independent of the genome). The model is verified by simulating simplified lake systems, for which theoretical solutions are available. Then, it is used to simulate the biogeography of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa in a number of real systems, including the Great Lakes, Klamath River, Yahara River, and Chattahoochee River. Model output is analyzed using standard bioinformatics tools (BLAST, MAFFT). The emergent patterns of nucleotide divergence between lakes are dynamic, including gradual increases due to accumulation of mutations and abrupt changes due to population takeovers by migrant cells (coalescence events). The model predicted nucleotide divergence is heterogeneous within systems, and for weakly connected lakes, it can be substantial. For example, Lakes Superior and Michigan are predicted to have an average genomic nucleotide divergence of 8200bp or 0.14%. The divergence between more strongly connected lakes is much lower. Our results provide a quantitative baseline for future biogeography studies. They show that dispersal limitation can be an important factor in microbe biogeography, which is contrary to the common belief, and could affect how a system responds to environmental change.

Shifting drivers and static baselines in environmental governance: challenges for improving and proving water quality outcomes

Understanding the conditions that enable or constrain success in environmental governance is crucial for developing effective interventions and adapting approaches. Efforts to achieve and assess success in environmental quality improvement are often impeded by changes in conditions that drive outcomes but lie outside the scope of intervention and monitoring. We document how long-term changes in land use, agriculture, and climate act as non-stationary, shifting drivers of change that combine to render water quality management interventions less effective and increasingly difficult to assess. Focusing on the Yahara River watershed of south-central Wisconsin, USA, we ask how baselines influence program modeling, monitoring, and evaluation, as well as adaptation in governance approach. Through historical trend, GIS, and policy and qualitative data analyses, we find that changes in long-term land use and precipitation pattern dynamics exert tremendous pressure on water quality outcomes but are not captured in snapshot baseline assessments used in management planning or evaluation. Specifically, agricultural sector change related to the intensification of milk and manure production is increasingly challenging to address through best management practices, and flashier precipitation associated with climate change makes it difficult to achieve goals and establish a causal connection between management interventions and outcomes. Analysis of shifting drivers demonstrates challenges facing environmental governance in the context of climatic and social–ecological change. We suggest that goal setting, program design, and evaluation incorporate new modes of analysis that address slowly changing and external determinants of success.

A combined acoustic and electromagnetic wave-based techniques for bathymetry and subbottom profiling in shallow waters

Acoustic-wave based sub-bottom profiler (SBP) and electromagnetic-wave based ground penetrating radar (GPR) are two complementary geophysical tools that were used to map bathymetry and sediment sublayers in shallow waters. Near shore regions in Great Lakes, inland lakes, and rivers in Wisconsin, USA were examined using both geophysical tools. In areas with high silt and clay contents, such as Lake Superior, the SBP was able to image the sediment sublayers, whereas in the areas with sand cover and vegetation, the GPR provided sediment stratigraphic information. The higher vertical and horizontal resolutions of the SBP surveys provided more accurate and detailed bathymetry information than GPR surveys. In the Yahara River, SBP surveys imaged blurring contrasts between sublayers due to the gradual deposition of sediments; however, GPR provided sharp delineations of sediment layers but was only able to image the top two sublayers because of the high silt and clay electromagnetic wave attenuation. To confirm these findings, Shelby tubes and hydraulic jetting were used to collect ground-truth information. Sublayer thicknesses are estimated by evaluating acoustic and electromagnetic wave velocities using a mixture-based equation. In Lake Michigan, both techniques show similar sediment stratigraphy, indicating that the average sediment particle size ranges between silt and fine sand. Three-dimensional maps of bathymetry and subbottom sediments are also constructed. Overall it is shown that the combination of GPR and SBP techniques compensates each survey's strengths in an effective methodology for imaging bathymetry and sub-bottom profiles in shallow water environments.

Perspectives on the eutrophication of the Yahara lakes

Eutrophication of the four Yahara lakes—Mendota, Monona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa—near Madison, Wisconsin, has been dramatic since the mid-1800s. For Lake Mendota, the erosion of sediments from higher water levels established by the damming of the lake's outlet, plus the agricultural expansion of its watershed, resulted in blue-green algal growths. These impacts, however, were dwarfed by water quality problems stemming from Madison's wastewater inputs that directly entered Lake Monona from the late 1800s through 1936, and then Lake Waubesa until 1958. Blue-green algal blooms were so bad in the lower Yahara lakes that the Madison Public Health Department conducted major copper sulfate treatments during 1925–1954. During the wastewater input years, inorganic nitrogen (N) and especially dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) concentrations in the surface waters were very high (particularly in Waubesa and Kegonsa), indicating neither nutrient was limiting algal growth. No P legacy from the wastewater inputs was found in Waubesa and Kegonsa's sediments; minimal P-binding potential due to low iron (Fe) availability is the hypothesized reason. Mendota's algal blooms were not a problem until the mid-1940s when wastewater inputs from upstream communities increased as well as the agricultural use of N and P fertilizers. This increase in eutrophication symptoms coincided with an increase in indices of DRP and inorganic N concentrations in the lake. After wastewater diversion in 1971, blue-green algal blooms persisted in Lake Mendota, and the onus of the problem shifted to agricultural and urban nonpoint source pollution. While much progress has been made in recent years to control these pollution sources to Mendota, manure runoff during late winter continues as a management problem. As evidence, P loadings during January to March constituted 48% of total loadings measured for 1990–2006 in the Yahara River subwatershed. Much of this runoff P was dissolved and not associated with high sediment loads, whereas during other months, more of the runoff P was bound to sediments that could settle out in lower stream reaches prior to entering the lake. However, low P-binding potential of recently deposited sediments in Mendota along with signs of water quality improvements following periods of drought indicate the lake could respond rapidly to nutrient input reductions. Finally, DRP and inorganic N concentrations since 1980 have indicated that algal growth in the Yahara lakes during July–August may have been limited by not only P, but N (especially in the lower Yahara lakes). Aggressive programs to reduce inputs from both nutrients will be important to prevent scum-forming blue-green algal blooms and filamentous algal growths that could become problematic once zebra mussels become established in the Yahara lakes.

Evidence for Paleoindians in Wisconsin and at the Skare Site

The Skare site, situated along the Yahara River in southern Wisconsin, has produced evidence of human activity spanning from Paleoindian times to the early Euro-American settlement of Wisconsin. During recent excavations at the site, two Paleoindian artifacts, the base of a Folsom biface and a heavily reworked Dalton biface, were found below the plow zone. Inventories of Paleoindian sites and fluted biface distributions primarily documented in the surface archaeology of Wisconsin are examined to establish a regional settlement context for the Skare site and to investigate the nature of Paleoindian exploration and colonization of the state. Areas with the highest numbers of known Paleoindian sites and reported fluted bifaces correspond with resource-rich habitats, unique lithic raw material sources, and regions that have been the focus of Paleoindian research and fluted biface collecting. Clovis bifaces are found across the state, while Folsom bifaces are largely restricted to the southern half of the state. A comparison of Early and Late Paleoindian site distributions indicates that Paleoindian exploration of the state occurred relatively rapidly following the last glacial retreat.

Managing Recreational Use on the Yahara Lakes

ABSTRACT Conflict between water recreation users is a universal problem that is likely to become worse. Dane County, located in southern Wisconsin, has experienced growth in recreational use and increased perception of user conflict that mirror national trends. The Yahara River chain of lakes includes the County's four largest lakes, which provide more than 7400 ha (18,000 acres) of water easily accessible to residents of this, the fastest growing county in Wisconsin. This paper describes and evaluates Dane County's experiences with, and strategies for balancing the interests of increasing number of different activities using the same resources. Users have identified wakes from other boats, lack of courtesy, excessive speed, crowding, and inconsiderate behavior as problems. Dane County's recreation management efforts described in the paper include a200-ft(61 m)slow-no-wake regulation, coupled with state boating safety and equipment rules. Educational initiatives include formal boater safety education classes, and outreach materials and maps developed by the Dane County Lakes and Watershed Commission. Future management efforts need to solicit input from all types of recreational users, focus educational efforts on recreational use impacts on aquatic ecosystems as well as the regulations themselves, and use a deliberate planning process that could resolve recreational conflicts and bring about balanced resource use.

Hydrology and history: land use changes and ecological responses in an urban wetland

The impacts of changing land use on hydrology and dominant plant species from 1850–1990 were investigated in a palustrine wetland in southern Wisconsin, USA. Aerial photographs, historic maps and water levels of the area were used to determine changes in land use, wetland vegetation, and groundwater and surface flows over time. Piezometers and water table wells were monitored weekly for two years. Vegetation was quantified in four one-square meter quadrats at each water level measurement site. Linear regression models and multivariate ordinations were used to relate wetland plant species to hydrologic, chemical and spatial variables. The current hydrologic budget of the wetland was dominated by precipitation and evapotranspiration, although overland flow into the wetland from the subwatershed has increased twenty-fold since 1850. Water level stabilization in the adjacent Yahara River, creek channelization, and groundwater pumping have decreased inputs of groundwater and spring-fed surface water, and increased retention of precipitation. Typha spp. and Phalaris arundinacea L. have increased in the wetland, while Carex spp. have decreased. Phalaris arundinacea was found most often in the driest sites, and the sites with the greatest range of water levels. Typha spp. dominated in several hydrologic settings, indicating that water depth was not the only factor controlling its distribution. The distributions of dominant plant species in the wetland were most closely correlated with site elevation and average water levels, with some weaker correlations with vertical groundwater inflows and specific conductance.

Predator Avoidance by Cricotopus: Cyclomorphosis and the Importance of Being Big and Hairy

In laboratory experiments, we tested in importance of body size and long abdominal hairs in determining susceptibility of two aquatic midges, Cricotopus sylvestris and C. bicinctus, (Diptera: Chironomidae), to predation by Hydra and the damselfly Ischnura verticalis. The chironomids co—occur on dense macrophytes in the Yahara River, Dane County, Wisconsin, USA, and differ structurally in that C. sylvestris has long hairs and C. bicinctus has short hairs. We also monitored Hydra density and C. sylvestris hair length for 2 yr. Large C. bicinctus were less susceptible to predation by both Hydra and small Ischnura, but prey size had no effect on susceptibility to large Ischnura. Long hairs offered no protection from Ischnura, but did protect C. sylvestris from Hydra, relative to short—haired C. bicinctus or C. sylvestris with experimentally shortened hairs. Hair length is negatively allometric relative to body size in ontogeny; hair absolute length remains constant as the larvae increase in size. Hair length was also cyclomorphic; successive generations of C. sylvestris showed a seasonal pattern of hair length. Hydra density also varied seasonally. When Hydra density was high, hairs on C. sylvestris were longest; when Hydra density was low, hairs were shortest. The observed cyclomorphic and allometric patterns of hair length were both beneficial characteristics in the presence of Hydra, and the benefits were additive.

Middle Holocene dry period in the northern Midwestern United States: Lake levels and pollen stratigraphy

Four cores from Lake Mendota in the Yahara River valley of south-central Wisconsin provide pollen, charcoal, and sediment-stratigraphic evidence of a middle Holocene dry period in the northern Midwest. The lake level was lower between about 6500 and 3500 yr B.P. indicating that runoff from the upper Yahara River basin may have ceased during the drier seasons of the year. Derived estimates of precipitation between 6500 and 3500 yr B.P. indicate a decrease of about 10% (down to about 700 mm) from the present precipitation value of 800 mm. A warming between 6500 and 3500 yr B.P. is also interpreted based on a change of vegetation from rich mesophytic forest before 6500 yr B.P. to Quercus savanna, with increased charcoal abundances after that time. After 3500 yr B.P., a closed Quercus forest and decreased charcoal suggest a cooler and wetter climate. The qualitative paleoecological interpretations, quantitative precipitation reconstructions based on pollen from the region (including the Lake Mendota data), and estimates of hydrologic budget based on lake-level changes, all show indications of a dry and warm middle Holocene. Evidence from a large regional array of sites also supports these interpretations.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF GROUND WATER PUMPAGE ON LOW‐FLOW HYDROLOGY1

ABSTRACT: Ground‐water pumpage withdrew 57 cubic feet per second from aquifers beneath the Yahara River Basin in 1970. Forty‐six cubic feet per second were exported by the diversion of treated wastewater from the drainage basin.The low‐flow hydrology of the upper Yahara River has been impacted by this diversion. Prior to 1959, the wastewater was discharged into the river, augmenting the baseflow during low‐flow periods. As much as 85% of streamflow was due to effluent discharge. In 1959 the wastewater was transferred from the river basin. The result was a decrease of about one‐third in mean annual streamflow, and a decrease of more than 50% in the 7Q2 and 7Q10. Regression analysis showed the annual 7‐day low‐flow and 60‐day low‐flow have a statistically significant correlation with mean annual flow. Using predictions of future mean annual discharge of the river with increasing interbasin transfers, it is shown that by 1990 there is a significant probability that in some years the 60‐day low‐flow in the river will be zero.

A Heavy Mortality of Fishes Resulting from the Decomposition of Algae in the Yahara River, Wisconsin

A heavy loss of fish occurred in the Yahara River below Lake Kegonsa, Wisconsin, during the latter part of September and the early part of October, 1946. All species of fish in the river were affected in the mortality. The fish, crowded close to shore, were breathing at the surface and showed marked signs of distress before expiring. Chemical analyses of the water were made in successive periods, and experiments were performed to determine the toxicity of the river water to experimental fish. Death was attributed primarily to the depletion of the oxygen supply by the decomposing algal mass consisting of almost a pure culture of Aphanizomenon flos aquae. Secondarily, toxic substances liberated into the water by the decomposing algae probably contributed to the death of the fish.

Estimation of stream‐flow from alkalinity‐determinations

Occasionally the engineer making stream‐measurements is required to obtain data at locations where conventional methods are of little value. Such was the problem of Madison Lakes Survey. This Survey has been charged with determining the pollution entering the lakes from the Nine Springs Sewage Treatment Plant, the Yahara River, and several small creeks (Fig. 1). Strength of pollution was determined by chemical analysis of samples which gave the strength of the sample in parts per million (ppm) or pounds per million pounds and measurement of stream‐flow rates in cubic feet per second or pounds per period of time.

Fluted Points from Wisconsin

Recently, two fluted points from Wisconsin were brought to the writer's attention by W. F. Spengler, a student at Phillips Academy. They are the property of his father, Mr. S. L. Spengler of Menasha, Wisconsin, who very kindly sent them to Andover for the writer's inspection. Both finds were surface finds, but in spite of this fact it seems worth recording them, since both are known to have come from the vicinity of Madison. The smaller of the two (PI. XXXVII, Fig. 2, a-a′.) is from the farm of TomHalverson and was found on a field close to the inlet of the Yahara River on the west shore of Lake Kegonsa. Its base, as is shown by the photographs, has the slight prominence characteristic of the type illustrated in Roberts' Fig. 3a and Plates 5b and 6b. Fine retouching has been used to finish the base. The channel flake., which is an extremely shallow one, runs to the tip without hinge fracture.

A Sudden Mortality of Fishes Accompanying a Supersaturation of Oxygen in Lake Waubesa, Wisconsin

A heavy loss of fish occurred during April 1940, in the south end of Lake Waubesa, Wisconsin, and in the Yahara River below the lake. The fish affected were mainly black crappies, although bluegills, northern pike, yellow pikeperch, common suckers, and carp, were killed to a lesser extent. A heavy algal bloom composed principally of Chlamydomonas was concentrated in the area of fish loss and was accompanied by an extremely high (30–32 p.p.m.) oxygen content in the surface water. Characteristic lesions were present in the fish and consisted primarily of gas emboli in the gill capillaries and gas bubbles in the subcutaneous tissues. Death of the fish was attributed to the blocking of the circulation through the gills by the gas bubbles with consequent respiratory failure. A suggestion is made that oxygen was the gas forming the bubbles.