Xenon Dark Matter Detectors Research Articles

Detecting neutrinos from supernova bursts in PandaX-4T* *This project is Supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (12090060, 12090063, 12105052, 12005131, 11905128, 11925502), and the Office of Science and Technology, Shanghai Municipal Government, China (22JC1410100)

Neutrinos from core-collapse supernovae are essential for understanding neutrino physics and stellar evolution. Dual-phase xenon dark matter detectors can be used to track explosions of galactic supernovae by detecting neutrinos through coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scatterings. In this study, a variation of progenitor masses and explosion models are assumed to predict neutrino fluxes and spectra, which result in the number of expected neutrino events ranging from 6.6 to 13.7 at a distance of 10 kpc over a 10-s duration with negligible backgrounds at PandaX-4T. Two specialized triggering alarms for monitoring supernova burst neutrinos are built. The efficiency of detecting supernova explosions at various distances in the Milky Way is estimated. These alarms will be implemented in the real-time supernova monitoring system at PandaX-4T in the near future, which will provide supernova early warnings for the astronomical community.

Inelastic charged-current interactions of supernova neutrinos in two-phase liquid xenon dark matter detectors

It is known that neutrinos from supernova (SN) bursts can potentially give rise to nuclear recoil (NR) signals arising from the neutral current (NC) process of coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering ($\mathrm{CE}\ensuremath{\nu}\mathrm{NS}$) interactions of the neutrinos with xenon nuclei in future, large (multiton scale) liquid xenon (LXe) detectors employed for dark matter searches, depending on the SN progenitor mass and distance to the SN. In this paper, we show that the same detectors will also be sensitive to inelastic charged-current (CC) interactions of the SN electron neutrinos (${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{e}\mathrm{CC}$) with xenon nuclei. Such interactions, while creating an electron in the final state, also leave the postinteraction target nucleus in an excited state, the subsequent deexcitation of which produces, among other particles, $\ensuremath{\gamma}$ rays and neutrons. The electron and deexcitation $\ensuremath{\gamma}$ rays will give ``electron recoil'' (ER) type signals, while the deexcitation neutrons---the so-called ``neutrino-induced neutrons'' (${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{e}\mathrm{In}$)---produce, through their multiple scattering on the xenon nuclei, further xenon nuclear recoils that will also give NR signals (in addition to those produced through the $\mathrm{CE}\ensuremath{\nu}\mathrm{NS}$ interactions). We discuss the observable scintillation and ionization signals associated with SN neutrino-induced $\mathrm{CE}\ensuremath{\nu}\mathrm{NS}$ and ${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{e}\mathrm{CC}$ events in a generic LXe detector and argue that upcoming, sufficiently large LXe detectors should be able to detect both these types of events due to neutrinos from reasonably close-by SN bursts. We also note that since the total CC-induced ER and NR signals receive contributions predominantly from ${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{e}\mathrm{CC}$ interactions while the $\mathrm{CE}\ensuremath{\nu}\mathrm{NS}$ contribution comes from NC interactions of all six species of neutrinos, identification of the ${\ensuremath{\nu}}_{e}\mathrm{CC}$ and $\mathrm{CE}\ensuremath{\nu}\mathrm{NS}$ origin events may offer the possibility of extracting useful information about the distribution of the total SN explosion energy going into different neutrino flavors.

Improved calculations of β decay backgrounds to new physics in liquid xenon detectors

We present high-precision theoretical predictions for the electron energy spectra for the ground-state to ground-state $\beta$ decays of $^{214}$Pb, $^{212}$Pb, and $^{85}$Kr most relevant to the background of liquid xenon dark matter detectors. The effects of nuclear structure on the spectral shapes are taken into account using large-scale shell model calculations. Final spectra also include atomic screening and exchange effects. The impact of nuclear structure effects on the $^{214}$Pb and $^{212}$Pb spectra below $\approx100$ keV, pertinent for several searches for new physics, are found to be comparatively larger than those from the atomic effects alone. We find that the full calculation for $^{214}$Pb ($^{212}$Pb) predicts 15.0-23.2% (12.1-19.0%) less event rate in a 1-15 keV energy region of interest compared to the spectrum calculated as an allowed transition when using values of the weak axial vector coupling in the range $g_{\rm A}=0.7-1.0$. The discrepancy highlights the importance of both a proper theoretical treatment and the need for direct measurements of these spectra for a thorough understanding of $\beta$ decay backgrounds in future experiments.

A LN2-based cooling system for a next-generation liquid xenon dark matter detector

In recent years cooling technology for Liquid Xenon (LXe) detectors has advanced driven by the development of Dark Matter (DM) detectors with target mass in the 100 - 1,000 kg range. The next generation of DM detectors based on LXe will be in the 50,000 kg (50 t) range requiring more than 1 kW of cooling power. Most of the prior cooling methods become impractical at this level. For cooling a 50 t scale LXe detector, a method is proposed in which Liquid Nitrogen (LN$_2$) in a small local reservoir cools the xenon gas via a cold finger. The cold finger incorporates a heating unit to provide temperature regulation. The proposed cooling method is simple, reliable, and suitable for the required long-term operation for a rare event search. The device can be easily integrated into present cooling systems, e.g. the 'Cooling Bus' employed for the PandaX I and II experiments. It is still possible to cool indirectly with no part of the cooling or temperature control system getting in direct contact with the clean xenon in the detector. Also the cooling device can be mounted at a large distance, i.e. the detector is cooled remotely from a distance of 5 - 10 m. The method was tested in a laboratory setup at Columbia University to carry out different measurements with a small LXe detector and behaved exactly as predicted.

Coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering in multi-ton scale dark matter experiments: classification of vector and scalar interactions new physics signals

We classify new physics signals in coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering (CEνNS) processes induced by 8B solar neutrinos in multi-ton xenon dark matter (DM) detectors. Our analysis focuses on vector and scalar interactions in the effective and light mediator limits after considering the constraints emerging from the recent COHERENT data and neutrino masses. In both cases we identify a region where measurements of the event spectrum alone suffice to establish whether the new physics signal is related with vector or scalar couplings. We identify as well a region where measurements of the recoil spectrum are required so to establish the nature of the new interaction, and categorize the spectral features that enable distinguishing the vector from the scalar case. We demonstrate that measurements of the isospin nature of the new interaction and thereby removal of isospin related degeneracies are possible by combining independent measurements from two different detectors. We also comment on the status of searches for vector and scalar interactions for on-going multi-ton year xenon experiments.

Searching for a solar relaxion or scalar particle with XENON1T and LUX

We consider liquid xenon dark matter detectors for searching a light scalar particle produced in the solar core, specifically one that couples to electrons. Through its interaction with the electrons, the scalar particle can be produced in the Sun, mainly through Bremsstrahlung process, and subsequently it is absorbed by liquid xenon atoms, leaving prompt scintillation light and ionization events. Using the latest experimental results of XENON1T and Large Underground Xenon, we place bounds on the coupling between electrons and a light scalar as $g_{\phi ee} < 7 \times 10^{-15}$ from S1-only analysis, and as $g_{\phi ee} < 2 \times 10^{-15}$ from S2-only analysis. These can be interpreted as bounds on the mixing angle with the Higgs, $\sin \theta < 2 \times 10^{-9} \, \left(7 \times 10^{-10}\right)$, for the case of a relaxion that couples to the electrons via this mixing. The bounds are a factor few weaker than the strongest indirect bound inferred from stellar evolution considerations.

Searching for BSM neutrino interactions in dark matter detectors

Neutrino interactions beyond the Standard Model (BSM) are theoretically well motivated and have an important impact on the future precision measurement of neutrino oscillation. In this work, we study the sensitivity of a multi-ton-scale liquid Xenon dark matter detector equipped with an intense radioactive neutrino source to various BSM neutrino-electron interactions. We consider the conventional Non-Standard Interactions (NSIs), other more generalized four-fermion interactions including scalar and tensor forms, and light-boson mediated interactions. The work shows that with realistic experimental setups, one can achieve unprecedented sensitivity to these BSM neutrino-electron interactions.

Measurement of light and charge yield of low-energy electronic recoils in liquid xenon

The dependence of the light and charge yield of liquid xenon on the applied electric field and recoil energy is important for dark matter detectors using liquid xenon time projections chambers. Few measurements have been made of this field dependence at recoil energies less than 10 keV. In this paper we present results of such measurements using a specialized detector. Recoil energies are determined via the Compton coincidence technique at four drift fields relevant for liquid xenon dark matter detectors: 0.19, 0.48, 1.02, and 2.32 kV/cm. Mean recoil energies down to 1 keV were measured with unprecedented precision. We find that the charge and light yield are anti-correlated above 3 keV, and that the field dependence becomes negligible below 6 keV. However, below 3 keV we find a charge yield significantly higher than expectation and a reconstructed energy deviating from linearity.

Supernova neutrino physics with xenon dark matter detectors: A timely perspective

Dark matter detectors that utilize liquid xenon have now achieved tonne-scale targets, giving them sensitivity to all flavours of supernova neutrinos via coherent elastic neutrino-nucleus scattering. Considering for the first time a realistic detector model, we simulate the expected supernova neutrino signal for different progenitor masses and nuclear equations of state in existing and upcoming dual-phase liquid xenon experiments. We show that the proportional scintillation signal (S2) of a dual-phase detector allows for a clear observation of the neutrino signal and guarantees a particularly low energy threshold, while the backgrounds are rendered negligible during the supernova burst. XENON1T (XENONnT and LZ; DARWIN) experiments will be sensitive to a supernova burst up to 25 (35; 65) kpc from Earth at a significance of more than 5 sigma, observing approximately 35 (123; 704) events from a 27 Msun supernova progenitor at 10 kpc. Moreover, it will be possible to measure the average neutrino energy of all flavours, to constrain the total explosion energy, and to reconstruct the supernova neutrino light curve. Our results suggest that a large xenon detector such as DARWIN will be competitive with dedicated neutrino telescopes, while providing complementary information that is not otherwise accessible.

Mirage models confront the LHC. III. Deflected mirage mediation

We complete the study of a class of string-motivated effective supergravity theories in which modulus-induced soft supersymmetry breaking is sufficiently suppressed in the observable sector so as to be competitive with anomaly-mediated supersymmetry breaking. Here we consider deflected mirage mediation (DMM), where contributions from gauge mediation are added to those arising from gravity mediation and anomaly mediation. We update previous work that surveyed the rich parameter space of such theories, in light of data from the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and recent dark matter detection experiments. Constraints arising from LHC superpartner searches at $\sqrt{s} = 8\,{\rm TeV}$ are considered, and discovery prospects at $\sqrt{s} = 14\,{\rm TeV}$ are evaluated. We find that deflected mirage mediation generally allows for SU(3)-charged superpartners of significantly lower mass (given current knowledge of the Higgs mass and neutralino relic density) than was found for the `pure' mirage mediation models of Kachru et al. Consequently, discovery prospects are enhanced for many combinations of matter multiplet modular weights. We examine the experimental challenges that will arise due to the prospect of highly compressed spectra in DMM, and the correlation between accessibility at the LHC and discovery prospects at large-scale liquid xenon dark matter detectors.

Ultrasensitive resonance ionization mass spectrometer for evaluating krypton contamination in xenon dark matter detectors

An ultrasensitive resonance ionization mass spectrometer that can be applied to evaluate krypton (Kr) contamination in xenon (Xe) dark matter detectors has been developed for measuring Kr at the parts-per-trillion (ppt) or sub-ppt level in Xe. The gas sample is introduced without any condensation into a time-of-flight mass spectrometer through a pulsed supersonic valve. Using a nanosecond pulsed laser at 212.6nm, 84Kr atoms in the sample are resonantly ionized along with other Kr isotopes. 84Kr ions are then mass separated and detected by the mass spectrometer in order to measure the Kr impurity concentration. With our current setup, approximately 0.4ppt of Kr impurities contained in pure argon (Ar) gas are detectable with a measurement time of 1000s. Although Kr detection sensitivity in Xe is expected to be approximately half of that in Ar, our spectrometer can evaluate Kr contamination in Xe to the sub-ppt level.

Design of Low-energy Calibration Sources for Liquid Xenon Dark Matter Detectors

XMASS experiment is ongoing at Kamioka observatory in Japan, and one of its purposes is mainly for the dark matter search using 835kg liquid xenon as a target. Low-energy X-ray calibration-sources using characteristic X-rays are planning to be developed for the XMASS calibration.

Scintillation efficiency for low energy nuclear recoils in liquid xenon dark matter detectors

We perform a theoretical study of the scintillation efficiency of the low energy region crucial for liquid xenon dark matter detectors. We develop a computer program to simulate the cascading process of the recoiling xenon nucleus in liquid xenon and calculate the nuclear quenching effect due to atomic collisions. We use the electronic stopping power extrapolated from experimental data to the low energy region, and take into account the effects of electron escape from electron–ion pair recombination using the generalized Thomas-Imel model fitted to scintillation data. Our result agrees well with the experiments from neutron scattering and vanishes rapidly as the recoil energy drops below 3keV.

Design and construction of a cryogenic distillation device for removal of krypton for liquid xenon dark matter detectors

Liquid xenon (Xe) is one of the commendable detecting media for the dark matter detections. However, the small content of radioactive krypton-85 ((85)Kr) always exists in the commercial xenon products. An efficient cryogenic distillation system to remove this krypton (Kr) from commercial xenon products has been specifically designed, developed, and constructed in order to meet the requirements of the dark matter experiments with high- sensitivity and low-background. The content of krypton in regular commercial xenon products can be reduced from 10(-9) to 10(-12), with 99% xenon collection efficiency at maximum flow rate of 5 kg/h (15SLPM). The purified xenon gases produced by this distillation system can be used as the detecting media in the project of Panda X, which is the first dark matter detector developed in China.

The LUX Dark Matter Search – Status Update

We report on the design, construction and commissioning of the Large Underground Xenon (LUX) dark matter detector at the Sanford Laboratory in Lead, SD, USA. From its inception in 2007, to its construction at a surface laboratory in lead in 2009–2010, its operation in 2011, and its re-installation 1 mile underground in 2012, we review the relevant achievements already obtained and give an outlook on how LUX will become the most sensitive detector in the field in 2013.

An atom trap trace analysis system for measuring krypton contamination in xenon dark matter detectors

We have developed an atom trap trace analysis (ATTA) system to measure Kr in Xe at the part per trillion (ppt) level, a prerequisite for the sensitivity achievable with liquid xenon dark matter detectors beyond the current generation. Since Ar and Kr have similar laser cooling wavelengths, the apparatus has been tested with Ar to avoid contamination prior to measuring Xe samples. A radio-frequency plasma discharge generates a beam of metastable atoms which is optically collimated, slowed, and trapped using standard magneto-optical techniques. Based on the measured overall system efficiency of 1.2 × 10(-8) (detection mode), we expect the ATTA system to reach the design goal sensitivity to ppt concentrations of Kr in Xe in <2 h.

Study of light detection and sensitivity for a ton-scale liquid xenon dark matter detector

Ton-scale liquid xenon detectors operated in two-phase mode are proposed and being constructed recently to explore the favored parameter space for the Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) dark matter. To achieve a better light collection efficiency while limiting the number of electronics channels compared to the previous generation detectors, large-size photo-multiplier tubes (PMTs) such as the 3-inch-diameter R11410 from Hamamatsu are suggested to replace the 1-inch-square R8520 PMTs. In a two-phase xenon dark matter detector, two PMT arrays on the top and bottom are usually used. In this study, we compare the performance of two different ton-scale liquid xenon detector configurations with the same number of either R11410 (config.1) or R8520 (config.2) for the top PMT array, while both using R11410 PMTs for the bottom array. The self-shielding of liquid xenon suppresses the background from the PMTs and the dominant background is from the pp solar neutrinos in the central fiducial volume. The light collection efficiency for the primary scintillation light is largely affected by the xenon purity and the reflectivity of the reflectors. In the optimistic situation with a 10 m light absorption length and a 95% reflectivity, the light collection efficiency is 43%(34%) for config.1(config.2). In the conservative situation with a 2.5 m light absorption length and a 85% reflectivity, the value is only 18%(13%) for config.1(config.2). The difference between the two configurations is due to the larger PMT coverage on the top for config.1. The slightly different position resolutions for the two configurations have a negligible effect on the sensitivity. Based on the above considerations, we estimate the sensitivity reach of the two detector configurations. Both configurations can reach a sensitivity of 2 ∼ 3 × 10−47cm2 for spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross section for 100 GeV/c2 WIMPs after two live-years of operation. The one with R8520 PMTs for the top PMT array is more cost-effective, while the one with R11410 PMTs on the top has a factor of two better sensitivity for light WIMPs at 10 GeV/c2.

Expected sensitivity to galactic/solar axions and bosonic super-WIMPs based on the axio-electric effect in liquid xenon dark matter detectors

We present systematic case studies to investigate the sensitivity of axion searches by liquid xenon detectors, using the axio-electric effect (analogue of the photoelectric effect) on xenon atoms. Liquid xenon is widely considered to be one of the best target media for detection of WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles which may form the galactic dark matter) using nuclear recoils. Since these detectors also provide an extremely low radioactivity environment for electron recoils, very weakly-interacting low-mass particles (< 100keV/c2), such as the hypothetical axion, could be detected as well – in this case using the axio-electric effect. Future ton-scale liquid Xe detectors will be limited in sensitivity only by irreducible neutrino background (pp-chain solar neutrino and the double beta decay of 136Xe) in the mass range between 1 and 100keV/c2. Assuming one ton-year of exposure, galactic axions (as non-relativistic dark matter) could be detected if the axio-electric coupling gAe is greater than 10−14 at 1keV/c2 axion mass (or 10−13 at 100keV/c2). Below a few keV/c2, and independent of the mass, a solar axion search would be sensitive to a coupling gAe∼10-12. This limit will set a stringent upper bound on axion mass for the DFSZ and KSVZ models for the mass ranges mA<0.1 eV/c2 and <10eV/c2, respectively. Vector-boson dark matter could also be detected for a coupling constant α′/α>10-33 (for mass 1keV/c2) or >10-27 (for mass 100keV/c2).

New measurement of the relative scintillation efficiency of xenon nuclear recoils below 10 keV

Liquid xenon is an important detection medium in direct dark matter experiments, which search for low-energy nuclear recoils produced by the elastic scattering of WIMPs with quarks. The two existing measurements of the relative scintillation efficiency of nuclear recoils below 20 keV lead to inconsistent extrapolations at lower energies. This results in a different energy scale and thus sensitivity reach of liquid xenon dark matter detectors. We report a new measurement of the relative scintillation efficiency below 10 keV performed with a liquid xenon scintillation detector, optimized for maximum light collection. Greater than 95% of the interior surface of this detector was instrumented with photomultiplier tubes, giving a scintillation yield of 19.6 photoelectrons/keV electron equivalent for 122-keV $\ensuremath{\gamma}$ rays. We find that the relative scintillation efficiency for nuclear recoils of 5 keV is 0.14, staying constant around this value up to 10 keV. For higher energy recoils we measure a value of 0.21, consistent with previously reported data. In light of this new measurement, the XENON10 experiment's upper limits on spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross section, which were calculated assuming a constant 0.19 relative scintillation efficiency, change from $8.8\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}44} {\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ to $9.9\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}44} {\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ for WIMPs of mass 100 GeV/${c}^{2}$, and from $4.5\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}44} {\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ to $5.6\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}44} {\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ for WIMPs of mass 30 GeV/${c}^{2}$.

Limits on WIMP-nucleon cross-sections from the ZEPLIN-II data

Results are presented from ZEPLIN-II, the world-first 31 kg two-phase xenon dark matter detector. Discrimination between nuclear recoils and background electron recoils is achieved by recording both the scintillation and ionisation signals generated within the liquid xenon, with the ratio of these signals being different for the two classes of events. This ratio is calibrated for different incident species using neutron and γ-ray sources. Background populations of gamma-induced events and radon progeny events were observed in the data. An acceptance window, defined by the neutron calibration data, of 50% nuclear recoil acceptance between 5 keV and 20 keV electron equivalent energy, had an observed count of 29 events, with a summed expectation of 28.6±4.3 γ-ray and radon progeny induced background events. These figures provide a 90% CL upper limit to the number of nuclear recoils of 10.4 events in this acceptance window. This corresponds to a WIMP-nucleon spin-independent cross-section with a minimum of 6.6 × 10-7 pb, and to a WIMP neutron spin-dependent cross-section of 7 × 10-2 pb at a WIMP mass of around 65 GeV.