Wyoming Research Articles

Maximum benefits for water resources and hydropower based on linear programming

With the increasingly serious development of greenhouse effect, hydropower, as a clean and environmentally friendly energy technology, is attracting more and more attention. On the Colorado River, the Glen Canyon Dam and the Hoover Dam simultaneously supplies water and electricity to Arizona (AZ), California (CA), Wyoming (WY), New Mexico (NM) and Colorado State (CO). However, nowadays, the two dams cannot coordinate with each other well to exert their effectiveness, and the water resources cannot be fully utilized, which makes us upset. At the same time, we also succeeded to find the solution, when there is not enough water to meet all hydropower needs [1.2]. We calculate the gap between water supply and electricity supply. Based on the Supply and demand models for water and hydropower, when there is not enough water, we deduced how much additional water needs to be injected into the dams could fill these gaps [3.4.5]. Besides, we analyzed how our model would respond, when many other supply and demand conditions changed.

First Report of Diplodia Shoot Blight and Canker Disease caused by Diplodia sapinea on Ponderosa Pine in Wyoming, USA.

Diplodia sapinea is a common fungal pathogen that causes shoot blight and canker of naturally occurring and planted pines and other conifers throughout the world. Damage can be severe severe, affectingand affect needles, new shoots, branches, and main stems, often leading to mortality. In August 2018, aerial surveys revealed 1,659 ha of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) displaying varying degrees of crown necrosis in Crook County, Wyoming (WY). In May 2019, ground surveys of this area, which was previously affected by hail the previous spring, identified typical Diplodia shoot blight and canker signs and symptoms (e.g., pycnidia, crooked shoots, discolored needles, resinous cankers). Symptoms were observed in thousands of seedlings, saplings, and mature ponderosa pine trees over the large area. Because D. sapinea had not been previously reported in WY, this study was conducted to confirm the presence and aggressiveness of D. sapinea isolates from WY on this commercially and ecologically important host tree. Pycnidia and conidia (size 34 to 39 μm × 12 to 13 μm) consistent with D. sapinea were confirmed in 19 trees from three locations in the county. Three isolates were confirmed as D. sapinea using species-specific PCR (Smith and Stanosz 2006) and are retained at the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Moscow, ID and Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. To confirm isolate aggressiveness, 3-year-old potted ponderosa pine seedlings were inoculated in greenhouses from March to April 2020 at the Charles E. Bessey Nursery, Halsey, NE using similar methods as previously described (Blodgett and Stanosz 1997). Wounding was conducted using a scalpel to excise a single needle fascicle from a recently expanded shoot. Cuts were made flush to the stem at 2 to 2.5 cm below an apical bud-tip. A 1.5% water-agar plug with cultured mycelia of one of the three DNA-confirmed isolates was placed over the stem wound, or sterile water-agar plugs were used as negative controls. Parafilm® (4-cm wide) was wrapped around the inoculated stems, centered at the wound for 4 weeks. Two independent trials were conducted consecutively, 3 hrs apart, in different greenhouses with five seedlings per isolate or control. Symptoms first appeared 5 days post-inoculation. All seedlings inoculated with the three isolates developed typical D. sapinea symptoms, including cankers (mean length 5.98.7 ± 1.13.0 cm standard error and 5.5 ± 0.8 cm standard error, trial 1 and 2 respectively) at 4-weeks post-inoculation, while mock-inoculated seedlings developed no symptoms. Stem segments (2-cm long) were excised, centered at canker margins (or centered 3 cm below wounds for controls), and surface disinfested for 30 sec in 70% ethanol and 5 min in 1.05% sodium hypochlorite, then placed in Petri plates containing tannic acid agar (Blodgett et al. 2003). After 3 weeks, isolates were subcultured from colony margins to Petri plates containing 1.5% water agar and autoclaved ponderosa pine needles. Pycnidia and conidia consistent with D. sapinea were confirmed after another month from all seedlings inoculated with each isolate, but not from control seedlings. This report confirms that D. sapinea is present in WY, and WY isolates can be aggressive pathogens of ponderosa pine. Reducing host water stress (Blodgett et al. 1997a, Blodgett et al. 1997b) may be the best option to manage Diplodia shoot blight and canker disease in forested sites. This can be accomplished by stand thinning and/or managing competing vegetation. Favoring non-host species might be an alternative management option in areas with severe disease.

Phosphorus fertilization and enhanced efficiency products effects on sugarbeet

A major cash crop in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming (WY) and the Yellowstone River valley of eastern Montana (MT) is Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.). This growing area is characterized by alkaline/calcareous soil conditions that inhibit phosphorus (P) availability. Phosphorus, however, is reported to increase root growth in sugarbeet. This study evaluated the effects of two P fertilizer sources and rates on sugarbeet productivity in Sidney, MT and Powell, WY. The P fertilizer sources were liquid ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and dry monoammonium phosphate (MAP) applied with or without a P availability enhancer (Avail®). A fifth fertilizer treatment consisting of APP + Avail® + starter fertilizer was tested. The APP was banded at 5 cm beside and below the seeds, the starter fertilizer was seed-placed and the MAP was broadcast-incorporated to 5-cm depth. Five P application rates (0, 34, 67, 134, and 201 kg P2O5 ha−1) were tested in Montana, and seven rates (0, 34, 67, 134, 201, 269, and 336 kg P2O5 ha−1) in Wyoming. Results showed significant effects of P fertilizer products and application rates on sugarbeet productivity and quality. The starter fertilizer increased plant stands in Wyoming, which was due to lower temperature (3–6 °C) condition at planting. Avail® increased root yield when APP was applied in Powell, WY, but had no effects when MAP was applied. There was no benefit from treatment with Avail® in Sidney, MT, regardless of fertilizer source. Phosphorus application rates had significant effects on root and sugar yields at both locations. The relationship between P application rate and root and sugar yield was linearly positive and failed to reach a plateau, despite the high P rates tested in this study. Such high P rates however, are not recommended in Wyoming and Montana because of the high economic and environmental cost associated with such rates.

Identical Viral Genetic Sequence Found in Black Flies (Simuliumbivittatum) and the Equine Index Case of the 2006 U.S. Vesicular Stomatitis Outbreak.

In 2006, vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (VSNJV) caused outbreaks in Wyoming (WY) horses and cattle after overwintering in 2004 and 2005. Within two weeks of the outbreak onset, 12,203 biting flies and 194 grasshoppers were collected near three equine-positive premises in Natrona County, WY. Insects were identified to the species level and tested by RT-qPCR for VSNJV polymerase (L) and phosphoprotein (P) gene RNA. Collected dipterans known to be competent for VSV transmission included Simulium black flies and Culicoides biting midges. VSNJV L and P RNA was detected in two pools of female Simulium bivittatum and subjected to partial genome sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis based on the hypervariable region of the P gene from black flies showed 100% identity to the isolate obtained from the index horse case on the same premises. This is the first report of VSNJV in S. bivittatum in WY and the first field evidence of possible VSV maintenance in black fly populations during an outbreak.

Elevational and Latitudinal Changes in Cold Tolerance of Nymph and Adult Mormon Crickets Anabrus simplex (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae).

Insects that hatch in winter and early spring in desert and montane regions are likely to encounter extreme weather events, including precipitous drops in temperature. The susceptibility of insects to exposure to subzero temperatures is predicted to decrease with increasing latitude or elevation. Mormon crickets occur over a broad latitudinal range from southwestern United States to Canada and a broad elevational range from near sea-level to 3,000 m. Population declines have been attributed to late freezing events, but winter hatching suggests they may also be cold tolerant. Lower lethal temperature of high elevation populations in low latitude Arizona (AZ) and high latitude Wyoming (WY) was measured by exposing nymphs and adults to 6 h or 24 h of subzero temperature. From similar latitude, WY was compared with mid-elevation Idaho (ID) and low elevation Oregon (OR) populations. Contrary to the prediction, lethal temperature of third instar nymphs was lower in AZ than in the more northerly populations. Consistently, AZ was more tolerant of cold in early nymphal instars relative to populations from higher latitude. Early hatching at lower latitudes might increase the risk of early instars experiencing a severe cold snap relative to nymphs at high latitudes. Also, contrary to prediction, the lethal temperature of adults increased with elevation, whereas third instar nymphs from mid-elevation ID were the most susceptible to cold exposure. Cold tolerance in immature and mature stages is more likely to be uncoupled when life stages do not coincide, as with Mormon crickets.

Prospect- and Mine-Related Features from U.S. Geological Survey 7.5- and 15-Minute Topographic Quadrangle Maps of the United States

Version 4.0 of these data are part of a larger USGS project to develop an updated geospatial database of mines, mineral deposits and mineral regions in the United States. Mine and prospect-related symbols, such as those used to represent prospect pits, mines, adits, dumps, tailings, etc., hereafter referred to as “mine” symbols or features, are currently being digitized on a state-by-state basis from the 7.5-minute (1:24,000-scale) and the 15-minute (1:48,000 and 1:62,500-scale) archive of the USGS Historical Topographic Maps Collection, or acquired from available databases (California and Nevada, 1:24,000-scale only). Compilation of these features is the first phase in capturing accurate locations and general information about features related to mineral resource exploration and extraction across the U.S. To date, the compilation of 637,000-plus point and polygon mine symbols from approximately 88,000 maps across 35 states has been completed: Alabama (AL), Arizona (AZ), Arkansas (AR), California (CA), Colorado (CO), Florida (FL), Georgia (GA), Idaho (ID), Iowa (IA), Illinois (IL), Indiana (IN), Kansas (KS), Kentucky (KY), Louisiana (LA), Michigan (MI), Minnesota (MN), Mississippi (MS), Missouri (MO), Montana (MT), North Carolina (NC), North Dakota (ND), Nebraska (NE), New Mexico (NM), Nevada (NV), Oklahoma (OK), Ohio (OH), Oregon (OR), South Carolina (SC), South Dakota (SD), Tennessee (TN), Texas (TX), Utah (UT), Washington (WA), Wisconsin (WI), and Wyoming (WY). The process renders not only a more complete picture of exploration and mining in the U.S., but an approximate time line of when these activities occurred. The data may be used for land use planning, assessing abandoned mine lands and mine-related environmental impacts, assessing the value of mineral resources from Federal, State and private lands, and mapping mineralized areas and systems for input into the land management process. The data are presented as three groups of layers based on the scale of the source maps. No reconciliation between the data groups was done.

Comparing different profiles to characterize the atmosphere for three MODIS TIR bands

Accurate land surface temperature (LST) retrievals from sensors aboard orbiting satellites are dependent on the corresponding atmospheric correction, especially in the thermal infrared (TIR) spectral domain (8–14μm). To remove the atmospheric effects from at-sensor measured radiance in the TIR range it is needed to characterize the atmosphere by means of three specific variables: the upwelling path and the hemispherical downwelling radiances plus the atmospheric transmissivity. Those variables can be derived from the previous knowledge of vertical atmospheric profiles of air temperature and relative humidity at different geo-potential heights and pressures.In this work, the above mentioned atmospheric variables were analyzed for three specific weather station sites located in Spain, at three different altitudes. These variables were calculated with atmospheric profiles retrieved from three different sources: The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) web-tool atmospheric profiles calculator, the MODIS (MOD07) product and the radiosoundings available on the web of the University of Wyoming (WYO), which are launched by the Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia (AEMET), in the particular case of Spain. Atmospheric profiles from 2010 to 2013 were obtained to carry out the present study.Results from comparison of these three different atmospheric profiles show that the NCEP profiles characterize the atmosphere in a better manner than MOD07. Average result values of the three MODIS spectral bands 29, 31 and 32 show a BIAS of 0.06Wm−2μm−1sr−1 and RMSE of ±0.2Wm−2μm−1sr−1 for upwelling radiance, a BIAS of 0.13Wm−2μm−1sr−1 and RMSE of ±0.3Wm−2μm−1sr−1 for the donwelling radiance and a BIAS of −0.008 and RMSE of ±0.03 for the atmospheric transmissivity.In terms of simulated LST, these errors yield a deviation of ±0.9K when applying a single-channel method.

Large Variance Seen in Medicare Payments for Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Purpose: In May 2013, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) released the hospital charge and payment data for top 100 Medicare Severity Diagnosis Related Groups (MS-DRG) for the first time. This study evaluates variability in covered charges submitted by hospitals and CMS payments for gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Methods: MS-DRG is an aggregate of similar diagnoses, procedures and services during a hospital stay with sub-classifications - Major Complication/Comorbidity (MCC), Complication/ Comorbidity (CC) and Without-Complication/Comorbidity (w/o CC/MCC) ranging from most severe cases to cases with no significant conditions affecting severity or resource utilization. We selected DRGs of all 3 severity types (DRG 377, DRG 378, DRG 379 respectively) for gastrointestinal hemorrhage for all Medicare discharges in the year 2011. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze variations in DRG payments, submitted charges, and volumes based on geographical region and hospital ownership.FigureResults: Data from 2,494 acute care facilities were included. The highest number of discharges were in Florida (FL), California (CA), Texas (TX), New York (NY), and Illinois (IL) and the lowest were in Alaska (AK), Wyoming (WY), Vermont (VT), Montana (MT), and Idaho (ID). 48,398 discharges were DRG 377 with mean hospital charge of $46,459, and average Medicare payment of $12,730. The highest average payment was in AK ($20,419) compared to lowest average payment in AR ($10,335). 138,678 discharges were classified as DRG 378 with average hospital charge of $26,058 and average payment of $7,084. The highest average payment was in AK ($10,988) compared to the lowest average payment in AL ($5,864). 33,393 discharges were classified as DRG 379, with the mean hospital charge of $18,975, and average payment of $5,031. Highest average payment was in AK ($8,045) and the lowest was in Kansas ($4,180). County by county variability is seen in the attached graphic. Proprietary hospitals were noted to have maximum average charge but lowest average payments across DRGs. Conclusion: Significant state, county and ownership based cost variations exist within all MS-DRGs for for gastrointestinal bleeding. Future studies should focus on determining the cause of these variations and determining cost of care for specific MS-DRGs. Disclosure - Maged Rizk: Investor: Innowaiting (Dawazu LLC).

The Drought Calculator: Decision Support Tool for Predicting Forage Growth During Drought

The Drought Calculator (DC), a spreadsheet-based decision support tool, was developed to help ranchers and range managers predict reductions in forage production due to drought. Forage growth potential (FGP), the fraction of historical average production, is predicted as a weighted average of monthly precipitation from January through June. We calibrated and evaluated the DC tool in the Great Plains of the United States, using FGP and precipitation data from Colorado (CO), North Dakota (ND), and Wyoming (WY). In CO, FGP was most sensitive to precipitation in April and May, in ND to precipitation in April and June, and in WY to precipitation in April, May, and June. Weights in these months ranged from 0.16 to 0.52. Prediction was better for CO and WY than for ND. When January–June precipitation was used, the tool correctly predicted 83% of the years with FGP reduced by drought for CO, 82% for WY, and only 67% for ND. Positive values of the True Skill Statistic (0.53 for CO, 0.42 for WY, and 0.17 for ND) indicate that FGP was classified as above or below average better than random selection. Predicting FGP earlier than April in CO and WY will require accurate forecasts of April–June precipitation. Use of the DC is most limited by insufficient forage data to determine the site-specific relationships between FGP and monthly precipitation. Even so, the decision tool is useful for discriminating drought effects on FGP classification being above or below the long-term average, and it provides a quantitative prediction to producers for their destocking decisions in drought years.

Bioassay for estimating the biogenic methane-generating potential of coal samples

Generation of secondary biogenic methane in coal beds is likely controlled by a combination of factors such as the bioavailability of coal carbon, the presence of a microbial community to convert coal carbon to methane, and an environment supporting microbial growth and methanogenesis. A set of treatments and controls was developed to bioassay the bioavailability of coal for conversion to methane under defined laboratory conditions. Treatments included adding a well-characterized consortium of bacteria and methanogens (enriched from modern wetland sediments) and providing conditions to support endemic microbial activity. The contribution of desorbed methane in the bioassays was determined in treatments with bromoethane sulfonic acid, an inhibitor of microbial methanogenesis. The bioassay compared 16 subbituminous coal samples collected from beds in Texas (TX), Wyoming (WY), and Alaska (AK), and two bituminous coal samples from Pennsylvania (PA). New biogenic methane was observed in several samples of subbituminous coal with the microbial consortium added, but endemic activity was less commonly observed. The highest methane generation [80 µmol methane/g coal (56 scf/ton or 1.75 cm3/g)] was from a south TX coal sample that was collected from a non-gas-producing well. Subbituminous coals from the Powder River Basin, WY and North Slope Borough, AK contained more sorbed (original) methane than the TX coal sample and generated 0–23 µmol/g (up to 16 scf/ton or 0.5 cm3/g) new biogenic methane in the bioassay. Standard indicators of thermal maturity such as burial depth, nitrogen content, and calorific value did not explain differences in biogenic methane among subbituminous coal samples. No original methane was observed in two bituminous samples from PA, nor was any new methane generated in bioassays of these samples. The bioassay offers a new tool for assessing the potential of coal for biogenic methane generation, and provides a platform for studying the mechanisms involved in this economically important activity.

Integrated treatment process using a natural Wyoming clinoptilolite for remediating produced waters from coalbed natural gas operations

Coalbed natural gas (CBNG) development in western U.S. states has resulted in an increase in an essential energy resource, but has also resulted in environmental impacts and additional regulatory needs. A concern associated with CBNG development relates to the production of the copious quantities of potentially saline-sodic groundwater required to recover the natural gas, hereafter referred to as CBNG water. Management of CBNG water is a major environmental challenge because of its quantity and quality. In this study, a locally available Na-rich natural zeolite (clinoptilolite) from Wyoming (WY) was examined for its potential to treat CBNG water to remove Na + and lower the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR, mmol 1/2 L − 1/2 ). The zeolite material was Ca-modified before being used in column experiments. Column breakthrough studies indicated that a metric tonne (1000 kg) of Ca-WY-zeolite could be used to treat 60,000 L of CBNG water in order to lower SAR of the CBNG water from 30 to an acceptable level of 10 mmol 1/2 L − 1/2 . An integrated treatment process using Na-WY-zeolite for alternately treating hard water and CBNG water was also examined for its potential to treat problematic waters in the region. Based on the results of this study, use of WY-zeolite appears to be a cost-effective water treatment technology for maximizing the beneficial use of poor-quality CBNG water. Ongoing studies are evaluating water treatment techniques involving infiltration ponds lined with zeolite.

Health Effects of Toxic Organic Substances from Coal: Toward “Panendemic” Nephropathy

Coal contains myriad organic compounds, some known to be toxic and others that are potentially toxic. Toxic organic compounds found in coal of particular interest include: i) condensed aromatic structures (e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), which can act as mutagens, cancer promoters, and endocrine disrupters; ii) aromatic amines, which have probable nephrotoxic activity; and iii) heterocyclic compounds, which may be carcinogenic and nephrotoxic. Toxic organic compounds can be leached from coal into water supplies, and longterm human exposure to these compounds may lead to disease occurrence, including cancer and renal disease. Despite these potential hazards, little is known about the impact and toxicity of organic substances derived from coal in water supplies. One example of a disease hypothesized to be linked to coal-derived toxic organic compounds in water supplies is Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN). In this paper, we summarize results from our studies linking BEN to the leaching of toxic organic compounds from low rank (lignite) Pliocene coal deposits into water supplies (well and spring water) of the rural villages where the disease occurs. We also introduce the idea of panendemic nephropathy (PEN) for BEN-like diseases that are linked to coal-derived toxic organic compounds in water supplies, but that occur outside the Balkans. Preliminary results supporting the PEN hypothesis are presented, with results from proposed PEN areas in Wyoming (WY) and Louisiana (LA). Results of toxicological studies of the effects of organic compounds isolated from water supplies in BEN and PEN areas on human cell cultures are also discussed. China, India, Turkey, and Portugal represent other areas where BEN-like diseases may occur, as a result of the presence of extensive low rank coal deposits and rural populations using untreated water in contact with coal in these nations.

Puccinia acroptili on Russian Knapweed in Colorado, Montana, and Wyoming.

Acroptilon repens (L.) DC. (Russian knapweed) is a long-lived perennial weed from central Asia that is widely distributed in the western United States (U.S.). Recently, accessions of a rust disease were collected from Colorado (CO), Montana (MT), and Wyoming (WY) for comparison with Eurasian isolates. U.S. accessions had two-celled teliospores with slight constrictions in the middle and urediniospores with three germ pores ± equatorial in location. Urediniospores were (state, width × length, [n = 100]): CO, 16.4 to 25.7 × 19.2 to 27.0 μm; MT, 18.4 to 23.1 × 17.4 to 24.6 μm; and WY, 18.0 to 26.2 × 20.2 to 26.7 μm. These were similar to those of 16.6 to 25.7 × 21.2 to 28.0 μm from two New Mexican (NM) herbarium specimens (BPI Nos. 1107952 and 1110177) (1). Teliospores measured 19.9 to 27.7 × 29.8 to 47.4 μm, 17.4 to 26.0 × 32.4 to 44.2 μm, 16.5 to 27.5 × 29.4 to 45.7 μm, and 18.7 to 27.6 × 31.0 to 46.4 μm for CO, MT, WY, and NM accessions, respectively. These rust isolates have been identified as Puccinia acroptili Syd. on the basis of host plant record and spore morphology (2). To our knowledge, this is the first record of P. acroptili in CO, MT, and WY. Besides NM, P. acroptili has been reported in North America from California, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan.

Mistaken view of taxonomic validity undermines conservation of an evolutionarily distinct mouse: a response to Ramey et al. (2005)

1 Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 2 Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA 3 Department of Biology, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, USA 4 New Mexico Museum of Natural History, Albuquerque, NM, USA 5 Department of Environmental, Population, and Organismic Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA 6 School of Molecular and Life Sciences, University of Limpopo, Sovenga, South Africa

Polarized XANES and EXAFS spectroscopic investigation into copper(II) complexes on vermiculite

Interaction of heavy metals with clay minerals can dominate solid-solution reactions in soil, controlling the fate of the metals in the environment. In this study we used powdered and polarized extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy and X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) to investigate Cu sorbed on Llano vermiculite and compare the results to reported Cu sorption mechanism on Wyoming (WY) smectite and reduced South African (SA) vermiculite. Analysis of the Cu K-edge spectra revealed that Cu sorbed on Llano vermiculite at high ionic strength ( I) has the greatest degree of covalent bond character, followed by Cu sorbed on montmorillonite at high I, and Cu sorbed on reduced SA vermiculite at high I. Cu sorbed on clay minerals at low I has the least covalent character. EXAFS data from Cu sorbed Ca- and K-equilibrated Llano vermiculites showed the presence of a second-shell Al, Si, or Mg backscatterer at 3.02 Å. This distance is consistent with Cu sorbing via a corner-sharing monodentate or bidentate bond. Polarized XANES and EXAFS results revealed that the angle between the Cu atom and the mineral sorption sites is 68° with respect to the [001] direction. From the bond angle and the persistence of the second-shell backscatterer when the interlayer is collapsed (K-equilibration), we conclude that Cu adsorption on the Llano vermiculite is not occurring in the interlayer but rather Cu is adsorbing onto the edges of the vermiculite. Results from this research provide evidence that Cu forms inner-sphere and outer-sphere complexes on clay minerals, and does not form the vast multinuclear surface precipitates that have been observed for Co, Zn, and Ni.

Geologic history of natural coal-bed fires, Powder River basin, USA

Coal-bed fires ignited by natural processes have baked and fused overlying sediments to form clinker, a hard red or varicolored rock, through much of the northern Great Plains of the United States (USA). The gently dipping coal beds in the region burn when regional downwasting brings them above the local water table. The resulting clinker forms a rim along the exposed edge of the coal bed in an ongoing process through geologic time. The resistant clinker is left capping buttes and ridges after the softer unbaked strata erode away. Clinker outcrops cover more than 4100 km 2 in the Powder River basin (PRB), which lies in Wyoming (WY) and Montana (MT). The clinker in place records tens of billions of tons of coal that have burned, releasing gases into the atmosphere. The amount of clinker that has eroded away was at least an order of magnitude greater than the clinker that remains in place. Fission-track and uranium–thorium/helium ages of detrital zircon crystals in clinker, and paleomagnetic ages of clinker, show that coal beds have burned naturally during at least the past 4 million years (Ma). The oldest in-place clinker that has been dated, collected from a high, isolated, clinker-capped ridge, has a fission track age of 2.8±0.6 Ma. Evidence of erosion and downcutting is also preserved by clinker clasts in gravel terraces. One clinker boulder in a terrace 360 m above the Yellowstone River has a fission track age of 4.0±0.7 Ma. Coal-bed fires are caused by lightning, wildfires, spontaneous combustion, or human activity on coal outcrops and in mines. Miners, government agencies, and ranchers have extinguished thousands of coal bed fires, but natural ignition continues where fresh coal has access to air. At any given time, hundreds of fires, mostly small, are burning. In the Powder River basin, the total amount of coal burned by natural fires in the last 2 Ma is one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total amount of coal removed by mining in the past century. However, current annual rates of coal mining are three to four orders of magnitude greater than estimated prehistoric annual rates of coal consumption by natural fires.

Northern Root‐Knot Nematode Populations and Soil Temperature Effect on Alfalfa

Resistance is the only practical method of controlling northern root‐knot nematode [Meloidogyne hapla (Chitwood)] on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). This study was conducted to determine if physiological differences in geographically separated nematode populations affected the resistance and susceptibility of alfalfa to M. hapla. The host/parasite relationship between resistant and susceptible alfalfa and five M. hapla populations was investigated at Logan, UT in regulated greenhouse and growth chamber studies. Meloidogyne hapla‐susceptible ‘Ranger’ alfalfa was 100% susceptible to all M. hapla populations, while M. hapla‐resistant Nevada Synthetic XX (Nev Syn XX) germplasm differed in the percentage of plants susceptible to California 1 (CA1), California 2 (CA2), Utah (UT), Nevada (NV), and Wyoming (WY) populations. Ranger was 100% susceptible to all populations at soil temperatures of IS to 30 °C. The Nev Syn XX was 100% susceptible to CA1 at all temperatures, but differed in the percentage of susceptibility to the other populations at temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (P < 0.05). Reproduction on Ranger for all nematode populations was greatest at 25 °C (P < 0.05), while CA1 and CA2 had a higher reproduction rate at 30 °C than the other populations. On Nev Syn XX, the greatest reproduction for CA1 occurred at 25 °C, and with the other populations at 30 °C (P < 0.05) where resistance was lost. Shoot dry weights of Ranger were less at 30 °C for CA1 and CA2, and at 25 °C for the other nematode populations (P < 0.05). The greatest reduction of Nev Syn XX shoot growth by CA1 occurred at 25 °C. Physiological differences in the virulence and reproduction of M. hapla populations and the effect of soil temperatures on expression of plant resistance should be considered in an alfalfa breeding program involving this nematode.

The Sister’s Hill Site And Its Bearing On The Wyoming Postglacial Alluvial Chronology

Alluvial sediments exposed at the Sis ter's Hill Site near Buffalo, Johnson County, Wyoming shed new light on the stratigraphy of the Ucross and Kaycee formations and reveal that another strati graphic unit occur s between the se forma tions in some places. At the Sister's Hill Site, Hell Gap artifacts occur in the lower part of the new unit and in associa tion with a Carbon-14 date of 9650 B.P. On the basis of an extensive geological survey covering more than half of Wyo ming and parts of the neighboring states of Montana, South Dakota, and Nebraska, Leopold and Miller (1954) demonstrated that a consistent sequence of alluvial events is represented in the stream val leys of this area and that this sequence preserves a record of climatic events from late Wisconsin time to the present. The generalized alluvial sequence demonstrated by Leopold and Miller is shown in Figure 1. The alluvial record reveals that at some unknown time in the past the majority of streams in the area incised their channels into bedrock and subsequently filled with gravels to form an overlapping gravel fill called the Ar vada formation. After a period of stabil ity and subaerial weathering this sequence of events was repeated to deposit gravels and silts of the Ucross formation in a similar overlapping relationship. Again a period of subaerial weathering ensued followed by downcutting but this time the subsequent filling consisted of silt and sand that again overlapped the valley slopes. This fine-grained fill is called the Kaycee formation and because no sub sequent fill has attained the level of its surface it forms a persistent terrace, the Kaycee terrace, which is easily rec ognized along most drainage s of the area. After streams had attained grade at the level of the Kaycee terrace they deepened their channels into the Kaycee alluvium and established a new grade at a lower level. Further downcutting followed with out an intervening period of alluviation. The stream-cut surface thus formed is the Moorcroft terrace. The channel cut through this surface was filled by inter bedded silt, sand, and gravel that repre sents the last period of alluviation. In most valleys the modern streams are incised a foot or so into this youngest fill and thus form the Lightning terrace. In some valleys the Lightning surface is the modern flood plain. The weathering profile developed in the Arvada gravels is characterized by strong iron oxidation and involutions, but

Three Human Skeletons From The Pk Burial Sheridan County, Wyoming

Three Human Skeletons From The Pk Burial Sheridan County, Wyoming

Prospects in the Caribbean

DIVISION is the heritage of the Caribbean. The separate ness of the islands in the archipelago that curves for a thousand miles from the tip of Florida to the mouth of the Orinoco is reflected in the fact that they have no common name. Each island shares with the others the same startling beauty of sun-drenched mountains and peacock seas; each has the same social configuration resulting from the same techniques of pro duction, the intensive cultivation of one crop, and slavery. Yet the keynote is contrast, the dominant theme competition. One reason for this is that the archipelago extends over a great dis tance; if Port of Spain were to be placed where Savannah is, San Juan would fall on Indianapolis and Havana in northeastern Wy oming. But history, not geography, supplies the chief reason, for even those islands which lie within easy reach of each other turn their faces toward Europe and their backs on their neighbors. The rivalries of Western Europe broke the region into segments, each tightly integrated into the trading system of the metropolitan power, sealed off in an almost watertight compartment and stocked with people brought together from Europe, a score of West African kingdoms and the central provinces of India. No where else in the New World is there so sharp a juxtaposition of different races, languages, religions?different legal, educational and political systems. Yet the compelling need is to jettison the heritage of division. Will this be any easier now following the breakup of the Federa tion, when Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago are independent countries and seven or eight smaller islands are on the point of in dependence? Will the breaking of the last imperial ties with Brit ain mean that West Indians will reject insularity and parochial ism and move closer to Latin America? Does West Indian inde