Wrought Aluminum Research Articles

Systematic Review on Additive Friction Stir Deposition: Materials, Processes, Monitoring and Modelling

Emerging solid-state additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have recently garnered significant interest because they can prevent the defects that other metal AM processes may have due to sintering or melting. Additive friction stir deposition (AFSD), also known as MELD, is a solid-state AM technology that utilises bar feedstocks as the input material and frictional–deformational heat as the energy source. AFSD offers high deposition rates and is a promising technique for achieving defect-free material properties like wrought aluminium, magnesium, steel, and titanium alloys. While it offers benefits in terms of productivity and material properties, its low technology readiness level prevents widespread adoption. Academics and engineers are conducting research across various subfields to better understand the process parameters, material properties, process monitoring, and modelling of the AFSD technology. Yet, it is also crucial to compile and compare the research findings from past studies on this new technology to gain a comprehensive understanding and pinpoint future research paths. This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of AFSD focusing on process parameters, material properties, monitoring, and modelling. In addition to examining data from existing studies, this paper identifies areas where research is lacking and suggests paths for future research efforts.

The influences of alloying elements and processing conditions on the machinability of wrought aluminium alloys: A literature review

Today, wrought aluminium alloys are ranked among the most important materials with low specific density, strength features, corrosion resistance, machinability and recyclability properties in numerous application fields. Machining process of these alloys involves a number of considerations to ensure the highest quality and productivity. Key machinability issues include the rate of tool wear, workpiece surface finish and integrity and machining process sustainability. Understanding and optimising these parameters can lead to improving the machinability, better surface finish, longer tool life, and overall, more efficient and cost-effective machining processes for wrought aluminium alloys. The machining of wrought aluminium alloys remains a challenging task due to their unique characteristics, such as high strength, thermal conductivity and refined grain structures with mechanical and/or heat treatment. Although considerable progress has been made in the development of cutting tool materials and machining techniques for wrought aluminium alloys, further research is required to improve the machinability of these materials and reduce the associated costs and time needed for production. Having access to relevant information about these characteristics can help industries and researchers make informed decisions and achieve better outcomes when machining of these important materials. Accordingly, in the current research work, a comprehensive study has been carried out on machining of wrought aluminium from different points of view.

Overview on aluminium alloys as sinks for end-of-life vehicle scrap

Abstract A fundamental principle in metallurgy is that the higher the purity of metals and alloys, the more favourable their properties will be. However, as the recycling of materials in production becomes increasingly significant, the levels of impurities are also on the rise. In the case of aluminium, the consequences can be detrimental due to the low solubility of most elements in this metal, which leads to the formation of brittle intermetallic phases (IMPs). Moreover, once impurities have entered aluminium, it is difficult to remove them. In 2017, almost 100 million cars were produced worldwide. Historically, vehicle design prioritised performance, resulting in a multi-material mix to utilise the best materials for each application. This included over 40 different wrought and cast aluminium alloys, Cu-based materials for electrics, and steels for high-strength applications. In the recycling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs), high purity wrought Al alloys are today down-cycled to low purity cast engine blocks. However, recent advancements show that the drawback of increase IMP-fractions can be turned into benefits through the strategic design of heterostructured alloys. A first successful alloy example from this approach enables interesting forming properties, previously only found in 5xxx series wrought aluminium alloys, in combination with a matrix composition and age-hardening potential known from 6xxx series wrought aluminium alloys. A second examples reviews compositions directly resulting from ELV scrap. By manipulating IMPs it is feasible to create heterostructures with an interesting balance of strength and ductility. These approaches challenge traditional views, allowing for a greater volume fraction of intermetallic phases. Understanding the formation and role of intermetallic particles is crucial. This work gives an overview to the current problem and the state of the art and addressed the potential of upcycled aluminium alloys that tolerate high impurity levels by using intermetallic phases as impurity sinks.

Nanotechnology-enhanced castability of wrought aluminum alloys 2024 and 6063

In the realm of high-performance applications, wrought aluminum alloys are esteemed for their high mechanical properties and excellent strength-to-weight ratio. However, their limited castability poses challenges in economically producing intricate structures through casting processes. To address this issue, a small proportion of TiC nanoparticles is introduced into the melts of AA 2024 and AA 6063 for nano-treating. This nano-treatment imparts several beneficial effects, including the delayed release of latent heat, inhibition of grain growth, and improvement of wettability. These effects enhance the fluidity of the melt, eliminate hot cracking, and elevate the surface quality of the castings. The outcomes underscore the promising potential of emerging nano-treatment technology in rendering traditionally non-castable wrought aluminum alloys suitable for cost-effective casting processes, ultimately delivering high-performance products for a wide range of applications.

Nanoparticle-enabled additive manufacturing of high strength 6061 aluminum alloy via Laser Powder Bed Fusion

Wrought aluminum alloy AA6061 is widely used in automotive, aerospace, and other industries due to its good properties, including high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and good weldability. However, when using Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) for AA6061, hot cracking becomes a serious problem. In this work, AA6061 powder with internally dispersed nanoparticles has been adopted in a LPBF process. Through optimization of printing parameters, components with minimal porosity (less than 0.5 %) have been successfully produced without cracks. Additionally, by employing a chessboard printing strategy to create finely detailed cellular and grain structures, we have achieved significantly enhanced mechanical properties in its as-printed state for AA6061. These components exhibit an impressive yield strength (YS) of 233 MPa and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 310 MPa while maintaining a ductility of approximately 10 %. This performance surpasses that of commercial AA6061 and other Al-Si alloys, establishing it as a high-strength material suitable for various applications.

Nanotechnology-enabled rapid investment casting of high-performance wrought aluminum alloys

High-performance wrought aluminium alloys are widely used in automobiles and aerospace industries owing to their high-volume precipitates after heat treatment. Investment casting as one of the precision manufacturing methods provides great potential to achieve excellent surface finishes and complex geometry for aluminium alloy components. However, these high-performance aluminium alloys are almost impossible to be investment cast due to their hot cracking susceptibility and severe shrinkage during solidification. In this study, we introduce nanotechnology to improve the processability of high-performance wrought aluminium alloys in investment casting by adding a small volume fraction of nanoparticles into the aluminium alloys. This work showed the unprecedented success of nanotechnology-enabled investment casting of high-strength wrought aluminium alloys (AA6061, AA2024, and AA7075) for excellent mechanical properties.

Impacts of T6 heat treatment on the microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion properties of thixoformed AA7075 alloy produced by cooling slope casting

Abstract Research into semi-solid metal forming techniques has been ongoing for an extended period with the aim of producing near-net shape products from aluminum alloys. The primary focus has traditionally been on casting alloys seeking to offer an alternative to the other processes such as high pressure die casting. Over the past twenty years, wrought aluminum alloys have also been explored for thixoforming operations as an alternative to traditional plastic deformation techniques. This research investigated the impacts of T6 heat treatment on the microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion properties of AA7075 alloy samples produced through cooling slope casting and subsequent thixoforming with different reheating durations. The selected alloy was chosen due to its widespread use in various industries, attributed to its excellent strength-to-density ratio achieved after T6 heat treatment. Building on optimized cooling slope casting parameters from a prior study, the standard solution treatment procedure following thixoforming with extended reheating times was found to be inadequate. Hardness and tensile tests revealed that specimens reheated for 120 min exhibited significantly reduced response to T6 treatment. Despite achieving the targeted hardness value of 154 HB with samples reheated for 20 min prior to thixoforming and T6 heat treatment, especially the elongation at break values were unsatisfactory. Potentiodynamic polarization tests indicated that corrosion primarily involved grain dissolution, with longer reheating times decreasing corrosion resistance due to increased amount of secondary phases and grain isolation. These findings highlight that while AA7075 alloy can be processed into semi-solid formable materials via cooling slope casting, issues such as hot tearing, micro-shrinkage, and physical defects post-thixoforming hinder the achievement of desired tensile properties.

Effect of in-situ forging assisted squeeze casting on the forming quality and mechanical properties of automobile control arm

The squeeze casting technique offers promising prospects for a wide range of applications, as it provides an effective solution to address the challenges associated with the poor casting performance of wrought aluminum alloys. In this paper, we implemented in-situ forging assisted squeeze casting (IFSC) to form an automobile control arm using a high-strength Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy modified with Zr and Er. The solidification defects, microstructures, and mechanical properties of the part were investigated under different pressures and in-situ forging using various analytical techniques. With the increase of squeezing pressure from 0 MPa to 120 MPa, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the sample increases from 500 MPa to 593.3 MPa, and the elongation is 4.35 %. After in-situ forging, the tensile strength of the sample is 600.9 MPa and the elongation is 5.59 %. UTS is comparable to squeeze casting, but the elongation is increased by 28.5 %. The results indicate that increasing the forming pressure enhances the surface quality of the parts and reduces the solidification defects. In addition, increasing the forming pressure not only refines the grain but also improves the grain morphology and enhances the uniformity of the structure. The squeezing pressure can enhance the contact between the alloy melt and the mold, increasing the metal's cooling rate and promoting nucleation for grain refinement. In-situ forging further facilitates liquid phase feeding, reduces alloy defects, and improves the overall mechanical properties.

The interpretable descriptors for fatigue performance of wrought aluminum alloys

Aluminum alloys are extensively utilized in the transportation and aerospace industries due to their excellent processability and corrosion resistance. A key aspect affecting the application of aluminum alloys is fatigue failure, with fatigue strength constituting an essential indicator for assessing the failure mode. In this study, 859 data sets were collected to evaluate the effects of aluminum alloy composition and mechanical properties on fatigue strength. To comprehensively evaluate the features that exert a great influence on the fatigue strength of wrought aluminum alloys, atomic physical quantities of aluminum alloys were added to the original data set. To improve the computational efficiency and physical interpretability of the model, Spearman correlation analysis, optimal subset method, and other methods were used to perform feature selection on the atomic feature quantities and mechanical properties in the data set. Finally, a mathematical relationship between material descriptors and fatigue strength was established based on the alloy composition and the three most relevant features in the feature screening, which helps to better understand and predict the fatigue behavior of wrought aluminum alloys.

Influences of post-weld artificial aging on microstructural and tensile properties of friction stir-welded Al-Zn-Mg-Si-Cu aluminum alloy joints

In this study, the effect of heat treatment on the mechanical and microstructural properties of welded joints after friction stir welding of age-hardenable Al-Zn-Mg-Si-Cu wrought aluminum alloy plates was investigated. For this purpose, some of the samples welded using FSW technique with a rotational speed of 1250 rpm and a traverse speed of 40 mm·min-1 were subjected to annealing and some to artificial aging heat treatment at different temperatures and times. In FSWed artificial aged samples where AlFeSi precipitate formations were detected, hardness and strength increase were realized with grain-boundary strengthening and Orowan hardening mechanisms. The lowest ultimate tensile strength was 156.3 N·mm-2 in the annealed sample, while the highest ultimate tensile strength was 210.8 N·mm-2 in the sample artificially aged at 190 °C for 2 hours. Fractographic examination revealed that ductile fracture occurred in all specimens.

Assessing the Performance of a Dual-Speed Tool When Friction Stir Welding Cast Mg AZ91 with Wrought Al 6082.

A novel dual-speed tool for which the shoulder and pin rotation speeds are separately established was utilized to friction stir weld cast magnesium AZ91 with wrought aluminum 6082-T6. To assess the performance and efficacy of the dual-speed tool, baseline dissimilar welds were also fabricated using a conventional FSW tool. Optical microscopy characterized the weld microstructures, and a numerical simulation enhanced the understanding of the temperature and material flow behaviors. For both tool types, regions of the welds contained significant amounts of the AZ91 primary eutectic phase, Al12Mg17, indicating that weld zone temperatures exceeded the solidus temperature of α-Mg (470 °C). Liquation, therefore, occurred during processing with subsequent eutectic formation upon cooling below the primary eutectic temperature (437 °C). The brittle character of the eutectic phase promoted cracking in the fusion zone, and the "process window" for quality welds was narrow. For the conventional tool, offsetting to the aluminum side (advancing side) mitigated eutectic formation and improved weld quality. For the dual-speed tool, experimental trials demonstrated that separate rotation speeds for the shoulder and pin could mitigate eutectic formation and produce quality welds without an offset at relatively higher weld speeds than the conventional tool. Exploration of various weld parameters coupled with the simulation identified the bounds of a process window based on the percentage of weld cross-section exceeding the eutectic temperature and on the material flow rate at the tool trailing edge. For the dual-speed tool, a minimum flow rate of 26.0 cm3/s and a maximum percentage of the weld cross-section above the eutectic temperature of 35% produced a defect-free weld.

Balloonless spinning spindle head shape optimisation

Abstract The article presents a procedure for assessing and selecting the shape of the ring spinner spindle head that is optimum for yarn manufacturing using the balloonless system, considering multiple criteria. This procedure consists of two stages: the Pareto-optimal method and the distance function method. Twelve spindle head variants were designed and manufactured of 100Cr6 bearing steel composed of C (0.93–1.05%), Si (0.15–0.35%), Mn (0.25–0.45%) along with aluminium alloys EN AW-6060 (AlSi1MgMn) containing Si (0.70–1.3%), Mg (0.6–1.2%), Mn (0.4–1.0%) and EN AW-6060 (AlMgSi) containing Si (0.30–0.60%) and Mg (0.35–0.60%). The shapes of the heads were developed on the basis of the design solutions used previously by the leading ring-spinning machine and spinning spindle manufacturers. Four design variants of spindle heads, made of AlMgSi wrought aluminium alloy, have a unique shape that enables shaping their teeth (notches) by extrusion on a hydraulic press. The assessment criteria were production cost per unit, head weight, maximum surface hardness HV0.1, and four yarn technological quality criteria: maximum yarn tension values during the formation of the base, body and head of the package, and the tension amplitude. The assessment values for the criteria obtained through calculations and measurements were normalized. Then, a set of Pareto-optimal solutions was determined using seven criteria. Due to the fact that this set consisted of six variants, the distance function was used to select the best one. The best design variant of the head is the one corresponding to the lowest distance function value. In our case, the variant is a unique shape, made of AlMgSi alloy, with teeth thickened on the outer diameter of the head, ensuring the lowest yarn tension value at the height during the formation of the package.

Electrical property enhancement of non-heat-treatable wrought aluminum alloys using graphene additives

With growing efforts of electrification, aluminum’s role as a light-weight conductor material has become increasingly prominent. There is a critical need to improve the electrical performance of aluminum at room temperature and high operating temperatures. In this study, the effect of graphene nanoparticle additives on the electrical performance of a non-heat treatable alloy were (AA3003) explored. Graphene’s unusual structure and electronic properties were used to improve AA3003 properties. Here, the effects of graphene on the evolution of electrical properties and microstructural features have been explored on lab scale hot extruded AA3003-graphene composites. Hot pressing schedules and extrusion temperatures were varied to investigate changes in intermetallic dispersion characteristics in the presence of dispersed graphene. We measured a reduction of 10.3 % in the temperature coefficient of resistance in the AA3003 sample with 0.05 wt% graphene extruded at 400 °C, along with a maximum increase of 1.1 % in electrical conductivity at 20 °C. Increasing the hot-pressing times up to 8 hours was also found to consistently increase the electrical conductivity, due to increased precipitation of intermetallic phases. Despite being a non-heat treatable alloy, AA3003 displays interesting precipitation dynamics and grain recrystallization trends that can be modulated with varying levels of heat treatment, graphene concentrations, and hot extrusion process parameters.

On how S-N curves for nonproportional loading can be determined from S-N curves for proportional loading – An exemplary evaluation of numerous fatigue tests using scaled normal stresses

The fatigue design of safety–critical components necessitates a delicate balance between sustainability and safety. This study explores the challenge of achieving a balanced design for components subjected to multiaxial loads, focusing on nonproportional loading effects such as an increasing or decreasing fatigue life compared to proportional loading. Existing studies present divergent views on the correlation between nonproportional hardening and fatigue life shift, with some proposing a connection while others treat them independently. It is still unclear which of the research groups may be right. In this article, the effects are considered separately as independent effects, with the focus on the shift in fatigue life.This paper compares various methods of representing fatigue test results under proportional and nonproportional loading. An attempt is made to establish comparability of the tests from different references. One challenge here is, on the one hand, to establish comparability with different stresses on individual material groups and, on the other hand, to consider the second material effect, namely nonproportional hardening.For this purpose, a strength hypothesis is used on the one hand and a plastic correction in combination with a damage parameter is applied on the other. The procedure described in this paper can also be used with other suitable strength hypotheses and damage parameters. In the following, the scaled normal stress hypothesis in combination with the damage parameter according to Smith, Watson and Topper is used as an example.The aim of this paper is to quantitatively describe the shift in fatigue life to be able to include this material effect in a fatigue assessment depending on the material group. A comprehensive database comprising steel, wrought aluminum, cast aluminum, and spheroidal graphite cast iron is utilized to evaluate the shift in fatigue life under nonproportional loading. The database covers various control types, specimen geometries, and amplitude ratios, extending from low cycle to very high cycle fatigue regime.Based on the evaluation, material group-dependent properties can be derived, which can finally be used in a fatigue assessment as an averaged correction of the calculated fatigue life or to predict S-N curves for nonproportional loading based on these for proportional loading.

Fatigue and Fractographic Analysis of Artificially Aged 2618 Wrought Aluminum Alloy

Fatigue and Fractographic Analysis of Artificially Aged 2618 Wrought Aluminum Alloy

Investigation of the Penetration Performance of the Radial Forging Process for Wrought Aluminium Alloy.

With the wide application potential of wrought aluminium alloy in aerospace, automobile and electronic products, high-quality aluminium bars prepared by the radial forging (RF) process have received extensive attention. Penetration performance refers to the depth of radial plastic deformation of forgings, which is the key factor in determining the quality of forging. In this work, the penetration performance of the radial forging process for 6063 wrought aluminium bars is investigated by simulation using FORGE software. The minimum reduction amount of the hammer is calculated based on the forging penetration theory of forging. The influence of process parameters including forging ratio (FR) and billet temperature on the effective stress and hammer load in the RF process are investigated. The RF-deformed billet is then produced with the optimal process parameters obtained from the simulation results. The average grain size of aluminium alloy semi-solid spherical material is used to evaluate the forging penetration. Simulation results showed that the effective strain at the edge and the centre of the RF-deformed billet gradually increases, but the increasing speed of the effective strain at the edge becomes low. The hammer load first decreases quickly and then gradually maintains stability by increasing the FR. It is found that low billet temperature and high FR should be selected as appropriate process parameters under the allowable tonnage range of RF equipment. Under an isothermal temperature of 630 °C and a sustaining time of 10 min, the difference in the average grain dimension between the edge and the centre positions of the starting extruded blank is 186.43 μm, while the difference in the average grain dimension between the edge and the centre positions of the RF-deformed blank is 15.09 μm. The improvement ratio of penetration performance for the RF-deformed blank is obtained as 91.19%.

The Role of Microstructure in the Gradient of Tensile Properties through Thickness in 7449 Aluminium Alloy Thick Plate

In this article, the yield strength, tensile strength, and the microstructure of the wrought aluminium alloy 7449 rolled thick plate have been studied through thickness under different temper conditions. For all heat treatments, it has been proven that the yield strength and tensile strength values increase from the surface to the centre. The largest difference between the centre and the surface, in both properties, occurs in the case of a sample aged at room temperature for 120 h (TTA temper). The sample artificially aged at 120 °C for 24 h (TTB temper) shows the best strength-gradient relationship of the tensile properties through the thickness. Metallographic characterisation carried out by optical and scanning electron microscopy shows much finer elongated grains in the region near the surface of the plate than in the centre, with incipient recrystallisation in the area near the surface. In addition, electron backscattered diffraction technique, used for micro-texture analysis, has proven the presence of a gradient of crystallography texture in the plate. This explains the yield strength gradient, since the rate of change of the Taylor factor through thickness correlates with the rate of the change of yield strength in the longitudinal direction for the samples studied.

Joining aluminum die castings and wrought aluminum by resistance spot welding

Resistance spot welding (RSW) is an economic, robust welding process, which is easy to automate and widely used in automotive industry. In this work, the resistance spot weldability of die-cast aluminum alloys EN AC-AlSi7MnMg, EN AC-AlSi9Mn and EN AC-AlSi10MnMg-T6/T7 to wrought aluminum alloy EN AW-AlSi1MnMg-T6 is investigated when applying the standard welding profile as recommended in VDA 238-401 considering main challenges in welding aluminum die castings, for example, porosity and inhomogenities. Weldability is best for EN AC-AlSi10MnMg-T6/T7, but the results show limited applicability of VDA 238-401 in general, especially for high total sheet thicknesses, because of invalid electrode force favouring spatter formation and weld spot irregularites. Still, all spot welds between die castings and 2 mm wrought aluminum sheets reach the recommended shear tension forces for spot diameter dw of 5·√t (2 mm: 5.95 kN; 3 mm: 8.96 kN; according to DIN EN ISO 18595), although being afflicted with solidification porosity and liquation cracking. Gas porosity is not observed and solidification porosity is only found to be significant for weld spot failure when being located close to the joining level, which is observed at welding depths of approximately 50% into the wrought aluminum sheet. Here, a failure path across the nugget is found. Weld porosity apart from the joining level is less significant and failure path is found along the fusion line between nugget and wrought aluminum. Instead, hardness difference between nugget and HAZ is the main reason for weld spot failure. Although the applied welding current profile is not suited best for RSW of mixed joints between aluminium die castings and wrought aluminium alloys, the results confirm its potential, for example, a significantly reduced gas porosity compared to applied fusion welding processes.

Aluminum Continues to Shine in Commercial Aircraft Applications

Abstract During the 20th century, the use of aluminum alloys helped the Allied Powers win World War II and made modern global air travel possible. Continuous improvements in engine technology, alloys, and manufacturing methods enabled the development of practical and efficient aircraft with varying passenger capacity and range capability. Conventional wrought aluminum alloys make up 70-80% of the weight of single-aisle airliners. Aluminum sheet, plate, forgings, extrusions, and castings all continue to be utilized in modern aircraft construction. This article explores a brief history of the special alloys, tempers, and product forms required to meet the unique challenges of flight.

Quality assessment of hybrid aluminum billets jointing using torsional forging method

The producing of hybrid (composite) workpieces made of AMg2 and AMg6 wrought aluminum alloys by torsion forging under deformation conditions at room temperature is considered. The results of the microstructure and microhardness of the composite samples after the plastic deformation are presented. Conclusions are drawn about the possibility of connecting these pairs of materials using torsion forging.