Writer Vladimir Research Articles

Nabokov and Freud: Solus Rex vs Oedipus Rex

Abstract: The enigma of Nabokov's lifelong enmity with Freud perpetually attracts research attention. In this article, the author analyzes the Russian-American writer Vladimir Nabokov's demonization of Freud by surveying previous explanations of this phenomenon and proposing an alternative explanation of Nabokov perceiving Freud not as a "father figure" or a "precursor," but as a dangerous and influential rival within the field of psychology as opposed to literature. The author asserts that Nabokov's feud with Freud is centered on the question of the soul. In particular, Nabokov strives to position himself within the realm of "soul interpretation" or "soul fiction" as a "subject supposed to know" and to establish himself as a superior hermeneutical authority. Finally, the author draws a parallel between Nabokov's attitude to Freud and Freud's approach to Nietzsche.

ЖИЗНЬ И СМЕРТЬ ВЛАДИМИРА ЗАЗУБРИНА

The purpose of research is to study the life and work of the first Soviet writer Vladimir Yakovlevich Zazubrin. His biography is described in detail and a brief description of his works is given. It is shown that the life of this person was full of bright and dynamic events. Zazubrin managed to be an underground revolutionary, a participant in the Civil War on both sides, a political worker and a Soviet writer. Impressed by the events of the Civil War, Zazubrin published his first novel, “Two Worlds,” which immediately gained popularity among Red Army soldiers, workers and peasants. After this, the writer becomes the editor of the Sibirskie Ogni (Siberian Lights) magazine and heads the Simbirsk Writers Union. However, in his works the writer tried to raise pressing problems of our time and, being a convinced communist, he remained an artist, trying to capture and show the unsightly picture of Soviet reality during the NEP (New Economic Policy) period. Many of his works, such as Shchepka (Sliver) and Blednaia Pravda (Pale Truth) raised the question of the appropriateness of revolutionary terror, the problem of unresolved social problems after the revolution, as well as the place and role of man in a post-revolutionary society. Unfortunately, the realistic picture of the post-revolutionary world by V.Ya. Zazubrin was negatively perceived by many Soviet party leaders, writers and literary critics. This became the reason for constant attacks on the writer’s work. In addition, in 1928, Zazubrin became a victim of group intrigues in the writing community and the beginning of the fight against the opposition, because of which he lost his post as editor of the Sibirskie Ogni (Siberian Lights) magazine and was expelled from the party. In all subsequent years, Vladimir Yakovlevich tried to rehabilitate his name before the party. Thanks to the intercession of M. Gorky, he managed to become a member of the USSR Writers' Union and publish his novel Gory (Mountains) about collectivization. However, despite his efforts, Zazubrin was never able to fit organically into the Soviet system, and then was crushed by it as an alien element.

НАСЛЕДИЕ В.К. АРСЕНЬЕВА И ПРАКТИКИ РАБОТЫ С НИМ В СФЕРЕ ПУБЛИЧНОЙ ИСТОРИИ (К ИТОГАМ ГОДА АРСЕНЬЕВА В РОССИИ)

The paper analyzes the work with the heritage of the famous traveler, scholar and writer Vladimir Arseniev performed by Arseniev Museum of Far East History.Based on modern concepts of public history, historical memory and heritage, the author characterizes the main events implemented by the museum during 2022 – Arseniev’s Year in Russia – and highlights the role of heritage as a tool for the formation of local identity.

Twórczość Vladimira Nabokova – krajobrazy w zwierciadle synestezji

The text presented below contains an analysis of selected stories written by the famous Russian writer Vladimir Nabokov from the perspective of the phenomenon of synesthesia that he experienced throughout his life. Nabokov’s prose radiates colors, showing the writer’s extraordinary sensitivity to the often-complex effects of the influence of light on various surfaces. The intention of the authors of the article is primarily to direct the reader’s attention to the synesthetic moments of Nabokov’s prose and to scientific sources describing and explaining their dynamics, function and origin. Like a boomerang, returns the question about the state of mind of artists who create a unique reality, previously unknown and difficult to grasp for many people. The article is also a form of dialogue between literature and psychology, which in the case of such a complicated mind as Nabokov had, may be valuable.

Гипермодерн “инженера” Гарина и преодоление постмодернизма Владимиром Сорокиным

SUMMARY: The article discusses the two latest novels by the modern Russian classic writer Vladimir Sorokin: Legacy (2023) and especially Doctor Garin (2021). Based on his interpretation of Sorokin’s aesthetical and philosophical program developed elsewhere, Ilya Gerasimov reads Doctor Garin as a literary work that did not go as planned. Dismayed by the unexpected result, Sorokin wrote Legacy as a follow-up meant to explicate Doctor Garin ’s message and explain it to himself and his readers. Therefore, Legacy develops to the extreme only one aspect of the 2021 novel. According to Gerasimov, Doctor Garin was planned as a postmodernist satire on the Russian intelligentsia, modernist literature, and the very society of modernity that produced them. Doctor Garin and his miraculous method of hypermodernism is an obvious reference to Aleksey Tolstoy’s The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin (1926–1927) about an impostor and adventurist seeking world domination. Sorokin mocks the modernist belief in “certain schemes to improve the human condition” (to quote this belief’s famous academic critic, James C. Scott) and Russian modernist literature, from Vladimir Mayakovsky to Vasily Aksenov, as well as modern governments’ failed political leadership. For over half of the book, Sorokin sustains his original rational design, channeling all his trademark spontaneous prose into “subtexts” – more or less extensive citations of imagined books or diaries introduced in the main text every 20–30 pages of the book. However, at some point, these subtexts disappear, and the protagonist fully immerses himself in Sorokin’s irrational narrative driven by the logic of language rather than ideological considerations. This change of narrative mode transforms everything – from the protagonist’s personality to the novel’s central message. Gerasimov argues that Sorokin chose time as a central argument of his antimodernist criticism, vindicating postmodernism as a condition of multiple isolated chronotopes, with each subculture or identity group living in a unique temporality of its own – contrary to modernism’s belief in progress and the normative universality of time. However, the spontaneous narrative of the novel’s second half produces a different effect. It models social reality as multidimensional and yet fundamentally interconnected. In any of the very distinctive chronotopes, social reality acquires its stable characteristics only situationally in the eyes of an active subject rather than by some preset, anonymous and objective factors, such as temporality or identity. This message is communicated by the narrative independently of its author, who attempted to produce a different conclusion in the follow-up novel Legacy . Inadvertently, instead of affirming a postmodernist worldview – relativist but static – and mocking the old modernism and some hypothetical “metamodernism” anticipated since the late 2010s, Sorokin outlined a program for a truly new, “post-postmodernist” modernism. It combines postmodernism’s multifaceted, multidimensional view of reality with modernism’s ability to produce a coherent narrative anchored in an unequivocal moral position. It embraces multiple temporalities, but also the idea of the future as a condition radically different from the past and present. Gerasimov uses the difference in conceptualizing temporality as the main criterion differentiating the modernist and postmodernist epistemes, in any of their aesthetic versions, as well as the hypothetical new modernism as spontaneously outlined in Sorokin’s Doctor Garin .

Restoration of time: Henry Bergson and Vladimir Nabokov

The purpose of the study is to interpret the idea of “restoring time”, common to the texts of the Russian writer Vladimir Nabokov and the French intuitionist philosopher Henri Bergson. The concept of “restoration of time” in Vladimir Nabokov’s texts, viewing it through the lens of Henri Bergson’s philosophy is explored. According to Nabokov “time is essentially memory in the process of its unfolding”. Moreover, that memory itself is a dynamic and never-changing process. Therefore, the conventional notion that restoring the past is simply about retrieving previous “moments” does not hold true in Nabokov’s approach. As a result of studying the phenomenon, it is concluded that in Nabokov’s system the restoration of time (the past) should become the restoration of the very movement of our memories, constantly “flowing” to the present. The reconstruction of time (the past) should focus on capturing the very movement of our memories, which continuously flow from the past to the present. Bergson referred to this movement as the basis of “pure memory” phenomenon, understood as the constant pressure of memories on the present and as the essence of “duration”: genuine inner time, that cannot be divided into moments, but rather is an uninterrupted ever-growing stream of our impressions. Thus, the Bergson’s philosophy effectively addresses numerous Nabokovian issues, both peripheral and central.

The Structure of the Children's Musical Narrative on the Example of V. Rebikov's Miniature "Lesson Preparation" Op. 37 No. 2

The subject of the study is the structure of children's musical narrative on the example of a miniature by a Russian composer, pianist, representative of musical modernism, musical reformer and writer Vladimir Ivanovich Rebikov (1866-1920) "Preparing a lesson" from the cycle "Pictures for Children" Op. 37. Narrative means the presence of a musical narrative structure, assuming the narrator's voice, plot, main character hero, chronotope. The analysis of these components will enable a comprehensive understanding of the concept of the composition. The aim of the work is to analyze the structure of the children's musical narrative through the prism of the perception and interpretation of musical text characteristic of the child's skills and abilities. The methods used in the work are : source studies, musical and stylistic analysis. The scientific novelty of the work consists in determining the features of the children's narrative in the musical art, lexical preferences defined by the children's picture of the world, which can include the character, title, remarks, design and musical "children's mistakes" expressed using syncopation, dynamics, fermated pauses, fermata, pedals, harmony, register and pitch; construction models of their description by referring to topos (figures); characteristics of the originality of the children's narrative in relation to piano performance. The results of the study reveal the specifics of the syntactic features of the children's narratives of Vladimir Rebikov's miniature and the representation of the viability of this phenomenon in the musical art.

Теория и практика путешественника и просветителя В.К. Арсеньева

The article reports on the pedagogical activity of the researcher and writer Vladimir Klavdievich Arseniev (1872–1930). Having arrived in 1900 in Vladivostok for military service, he was studying the Russian Far East for 30 years in expeditions that contributed to the regional development. The researcher’s rich experience, extensive knowledge in various academic fields, and the storyteller talent made Arseniev a well-known educator who delivered popular lectures in various organizations. Educational institutions occupy a special place in this list. In some of them he only made reports, while in others he was on the staff and taught lecture courses that were part of the curriculum. He was a lecturer at the People’s University in Vladivostok, the Vladivostok Teachers’ Institute (then the Far Eastern State Pedagogical Institute named after K.D. Ushinsky), participated in the organization of the State Far Eastern University and lectured at its oriental department. Arseniev’s pedagogical activity was based on the one hand, on constant self-education and his own scientific work, and on the other hand, he always tried and improved teaching methodology and attracted students to research and practical work. Thus, Arseniev anticipated the requirements that today are imposed on higher education employees. His example is very demonstrative today, when the goal of higher education is to prepare students for future practical activities. The article is based on V.K. Arseniev’s publications and materials from his personal archives in the Amur Region Study Society (OIAK) in Vladivostok.

Gathering the Nation in the Village: Intellectuals and the Cultural Politics of Nationality in the Late Soviet Period

AbstractThis article analyzes the activities of three Soviet intellectuals–the Ukrainian artist Ivan Honchar, the Russian writer Vladimir Soloukhin, and the Gagauz poet Dmitri Kara Çoban–who launched independent projects to collect and preserve artifacts of pre‐Soviet peasant culture in the 1960s. Reacting against representations of their national culture in state museums that they considered inauthentic and incomplete, these three collectors were part of a broader movement of intellectuals in the post‐Stalin period who sought to return to the village as the original source of “authentic” national culture. State responses to these intellectual initiatives were determined not by clearly articulated policies made in Moscow, but through the “cultural politics of nationality”–the interaction of intellectuals, republican leaders and central authorities. Demonstrating the enduring impact of these three independent collecting projects on Soviet and post‐Soviet thought about the nation, this article argues that changing conceptions of the nation in the post‐Stalin period are best understood as the result of a nationalities process involving intellectuals, republican leaders and central authorities, rather than an explicitly defined nationalities policy.

The Bridge and Narrativization of Vision: Ambrose Bierce and Vladimir Nabokov

The article contains a comparative study of the visual poetics observed in the literary texts of American writer Ambrose Bierce and Russian-American writer Vladimir Nabokov. In particular, the study focuses on Bierce’s short story “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” and Nabokov’s three short stories “Details of a Sunset”, “Aurelian”, and “Perfection”, in all three of which a number of narrative tools, images, and motifs borrowed from Bierce’s text can be found. The representation of the bridge and the narrativization of mystical insight are regarded as the principal features of the correlative imagery systems. These features are analyzed in order to discover Bierce’s and Nabokov’s understandings of the artist, visual imagination, and the freedom of will.

Vladimir Tuchkov’s intertextual transgression: Folklore, parody, and social criticism

This essay aims at analysing and illustrating a segment of the post-Soviet short fiction of the contemporary Russian writer Vladimir Tuchkov. It specifically discusses his collection of veryshort stories And he earned many dollars…: New Russian fairy-tales. These short stories exemplify many characteristics of Tuchkov’s oeuvre more generally. The discussion analyses the satirical contents of these miniature fictions, which the author places in the tradition of the Russian classics and of Russian folklore, within the theoretical context of parody, pastiche, intertextuality, and folklore. Tuchkov’s short narratives create a de-familiarised, quasi-mythological space where pre-modern, Soviet, and post-Soviet times converge. This results in the critical, satirical foregrounding of certain continuities in Russian culture, society, and mentality throughout the centuries despite the enormous political and social change, which it has experienced, as much as constituting, like Russia’s traditional fables, a critical and satirical engagement with contemporary social reality in Russia. The contribution examines the specific intertextuality with a satirical folkloristic genre as a literary expression, which reverberates with a post-Soviet readership, given its inherent concern with social structures. It is suggested that the employment of these concepts and literary forms in this combination serves to reinforce their overall effect of creating a hyperbolised, satirical representation of social reality.

Still More to Say

ABSTRACT After Lolita brought him international fame, Vladimir Nabokov kept producing new novels while translating earlier Russian works into English. Since his death, other translations, fiction, lectures, correspondence, writings on lepidoptera, and even a dream diary have appeared. The latest book, Think, Write, Speak: Uncollected Essays, Reviews, Interviews, and Letters to the Editor, offers a dazzling introduction to his work while tracing his progress from an essay on “Cambridge,” written as a Russian émigré student in 1921, to an interview with the BBC Books Programme in 1977. Scholars of American literature will be intrigued by evidence of his transformation from Russian author V. Sirin to American writer and university professor Vladimir Nabokov—including his first interview (in Russian) after arriving in New York City in 1940, his early book reviews (in English) for American journals, fascinating glimpses of his academic career at Wellesley and Cornell, and dozens of charmingly playful interviews from Lolita’s publication until his death. More than eight decades since Nabokov immigrated to the United States, there is still much to learn about his American literary career.

Relationship concept ‘autoimage’ and ‘heteroimage’ (Perception of the sociocultural aspects of novels)

The paper aims to introduce research in the field of the literary imagology and text semiotics. It focuses on the analysis of the creation of “autoimage”, or rather a self-image, and “hereroimage”, or a counter-mage, the image of otherness, as a means of shaping national identity, by interpreting the artistic texts written by the Czech writer Jáchym Topol and the Russian writer Vladimir Sorokin. It pays attention particularly to their novels from the first decade of the 21st century. The texts will be compared in a broader context of social discourse. Moreover, it will address the issue of the disproportion between the intensity of attention of one nation to another (Czech-Russian and Russian-Czech) and the differences in the perception of cultural distance.

Vladimir Arsen’ev and Whales in Russia’s Revolutionary Far East

This article examines the contributions the famous Far Eastern writer Vladimir Arsen’ev made to the development of the Russian/Soviet whaling industry in the 1920s. During that time Arsen’ev worked as a “specialist for marine mammal hunting” for Dal’rybokhota. He studied the whales of the Russian Far East and helped craft the Far Eastern Republic’s policy toward its subjects who wanted to start whaling. As someone with a deep knowledge of imperial-era environmental destruction and conservation, Arsen’ev helped develop measures designed to protect the region’s Indigenous people and fur-bearing animals while strengthening Russian sovereignty. He also advocated the wholesale slaughter of killer whales and ultimately failed to restrain destructive commercial whaling. However, in addition to adding a new chapter to Arsen’ev’s biography, his ideas about whales and whaling help us better understand the Far East’s environment history and especially the way imperial-era ideas around conservation survived into the Soviet period.

An Introduction to Vladimir Arsen’ev’s Life

The article is devoted to the famous explorer and writer Vladimir Klavdievich Arsen’ev (1872–1930). He arrived in the Russian Far East in 1900, where he conducted numerous research expeditions and engaged in a comprehensive study of the Far East. Arsen’ev studied the lives of the region’s indigenous peoples and published several books, Dersu Uzala being the most famous one. This article is based on Arsen’ev’s personal archives, which are stored in Vladivostok. The article chronicles his life in the Soviet period. It also discusses the punishment of his wives and children.

ТЕАТР ИДЕЙ И БЕСКОНЕЧНЫЙ ПЕРФОМАНС ИСТОРИИ: ПОЭТИКА РОМАНА ВЛ. ШАРОВА «РЕПЕТИЦИИ»

The historian and writer Vladimir Sharov was worried about the lack of historical memory, its preservation, against the background of the tragically repeating events in the Russian history. Considering the borrowing of ideas, ready-made development scenarios, and their artificial inculcation on the Russian soil to be disastrous, the author raises the question of the choice of one’s path by the people and each person who makes it up. The article considers the poetics of the novel “Rehearsals” through the prism of the development of the idea of God’s chosen people of Russia and the mythology of the Second Coming of Christ in Russia. Analyzing the historical scenarios represented by the three narrators, we traced their implementation in the life of a closed community, accidentally created by the French comedian Sertan. A tooliteral understanding of their roles in the performance based of the Gospel of Matthew, excessive performativity, turns the lives of sectarians into a vicious circle of rehearsals, followed by massacres. The hero can break this circle only when he realizes the possibility of independently building his destiny without breaking with his past.

What does frustration, serendipity and uncertainties of global media and communication means? Some versions from Latvia and Estonia

In a short novel by contemporary Russian writer Vladimir Sorokin “White square” (2018), the moderator of the show with the same title gets killed during the show in which four guests express their visions of present society. Everyone can follow the killing on-line, having voted shortly before for the most entertaining guest. After having received an injection of a new chemical formula which is supposed to entertain the audience, the four participants get wild and destroy the whole show enjoyed by the audience. A new moderator is being engaged to let the show go on...
 This rather gothic plot shows another part of the reality – the memories of the director of the show about someone, a person unknown to the reader, who has been killed to start the bloody entertainment. The ring, made of the skin of this unknown person gets lost and lands in a realm beyond the on-line entertainment culture: poor workers, their uneducated wives and alcoholics, who still inhabit the off-line everyday life of low wages, heavy physical jobs and simple joys ignored by blood thirsty audience, voting and selling advertisement time for higher prices. Both groups, digital media users and poor underpaid blue collars are in contemporary Europe and the USA targets for populist messages in media.

Portrayals of Disability in the Circle of Teenage Reading of the Twenty-First Century

Portrayals of Disability in the Circle of Teenage Reading of the Twenty-First Century Anna Godiner (bio) Translated by Alexander A. Kharitonov Once, drawing a portrait of a middle-age man with a serious disability, the famous Russian writer Vladimir Korolenko gave him the following words, addressed to a couple of boys slightly older than ten: “A person is created for happiness as a bird is created for flight.” Isn’t it the age when they recognize the desire to strive for happiness? Striving for happiness is the key to every good book for teens, including the ones where there are characters with disabilities: happiness to accept themselves and to be accepted as an equal—with worth and love—in family, school, and society; happiness to have kind and faithful friends and to be a good friend; happiness to study what they want and what they can, to become a necessary and useful person for neighbors and for those far away. These images of happiness of a character with a disability to some varying degree depend on the image of disability itself as the leading motif of narration and inter-character interaction. It is a defining attribute of literary works worldwide that have characters with disabilities that enter the world of kids’ and teens’ reading. For nearly the first time in Russian fiction, images of happiness and disability as a common journey and labor of all characters appear in the short novel The Blind Musician by Vladimir Korolenko. These characters are so strong and convincing that they are relevant for teenagers even today. One of the teenage readers admits that the main lesson that she learned after having read this remarkable story is that one always needs to treat others with understanding, kindness, and charity. She felt that a person should not close her eyes on others’ troubles; nobody ever knows what can happen to any of us. People have to help each other, to be humane. It is also important not to lose heart, whatever happens. Whatever the circumstances, she said, one should remain human and never give up. In fact, this book was included in the Leopold Classic Library1 as the cultural heritage of humanity. [End Page 76] Naturally, in this short review, we can only discuss the main images of disability in books published in the last twenty years. Others are listed in the bibliographic index The Books That Help to Live2 at the Gaidar Central Moscow Library. The index covers the books and separate works, including ones by Russian writers, for children and teen readers that were written at different times but were published in the twenty-first century. As they say, all of us belong to our childhood. Therefore, the image of disability is often viewed through the eyes of the siblings of disabled children. Whenever a book was written, its essence was the same: it is necessary to comprehend what is happening and to let your siblings into your life (not all at once, of course)—to let them in despite your growth pains, in spite of bewilderment of peers, in spite of being hurt by their behavior at school and at home, in spite of their bad attitude, in spite of the deaf silence of adults when you have to guess everything from some snatches of conversation and half words. And if you finally let it all in with peace, it will be a priceless experience of knowing yourself and knowing human relationships. Examples are Lydia Charskaya’s Notes of a Little Grammar School Girl, Anna Nikolskaya’s I Am Going to Live in “Sweater,” Eugenia Basova’s Teenager Ashim, Svetlana Varfolomeyeva’s Mashka as the Symbol of Faith, and Anna Verbovskaya’s Angel Called Tolik. On the other hand, the family itself can become an image of disability comprising a lot of conflicts: one adult strives for healing even at the price of the loss of the family, and the other one simply wants to live. And only the daughter, a disabled teenager who knows for sure that all of them should be together, can reconcile them (Anna Nikolskaya’s Little Threshold). There is a lot of antagonism: how...

КОРРЕЛЯЦИЯ МЕСТНОГО ЛАНДШАФТА И КАТЕГОРИИ ТВОРЧЕСТВА В ПРОСТРАНСТВЕ БЕЛОРУССКОЙ КУЛЬТУРЫ

The paper investigates the correlation of a small homeland, or more broadly, a landscape, with the work of many Belarusian writers, artists, scientists. This correlation can be very significant, and even becomes for many of them the main component of the creative process in life. The article analyzes the work of Belarusian writers who have become classics, for whom the theme of the homeland takes a central place: Ivan Naumenka (the novel «The pine-tree at the rode», Mikhas Streltsov (the short story «Hay on the Afalts»), Boris Sachenka (the trilogy «Vyaliki Les»), Larisa Geniyush (memories «Confession»). In addition to the homeland, another place where there is a correlation, is Kiev and other places in Ukraine, where many Belarusian distinguished people lived and worked. These are the princes of Ostrog – Fedor, Konstantin and Vasilii. In this work, we draw attention to the indissoluble connection between the Belarusian and Ukrainian life and activities of the Ostrozhski family. A native of Belarus, the famous Ukrainian hetman, creator of the first Ukrainian constitution Philip Orlik (1672–1741) studied at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy. Saint George of Konisskyi, was born in 1717 in the city of Nizhyn (Chernigov region), was a church and public figure of the Commonwealth and the Russian Empire. Graduated from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy (1743). In 1755 he was ordained Bishop of Mogilev (Belarus). In 1993, Archbishop George was canonized. The prominent historian Mitrofan Viktorovich Dovnar-Zapolsky was born in 1867 in Rechitsa (Belarus). In 1893 M. Dovnar-Zapolsky graduated from the historical and philological faculty of Kiev University. Author of over 150 works on the history of Lithuania and Belarus. Writer Vladimir Korotkevich (1930–1984) is a significant figure for many generations of Belarusians. It is a national symbol of the second half of the 20th century. He graduated from the philological faculty of the Taras Shevchenko Kiev State University in 1954.

Another earth and sky. Vladimir Korolenko and Igor Dedkov in the chaos of revolutions

The writer Vladimir Korolenko (1853–1921) and literary critic Igor Dedkov (1934–1994) became witnesses and active participants of Russia’s two ‘fateful’ historical upheavals: one at the beginning of the 20th c., and the other at its end. The article examines the values system of the civic stance assumed by these preeminent literary figures at the time of such opposite political U-turns. Quoted in the article are V. Korolenko’s journals and his letters to A. Lunacharsky. The article analyses I. Dedkov’s perception of Korolenko’s works as expressed in his diaries from the 1950s–1980s and journalistic pieces. The author comes to a paradoxical conclusion that while Korolenko and Dedkov represented nominally antagonistic political systems, their ultimate goals do not contradict each other. United by the ideals of narodnichestvo, Korolenko and Dedkov abhorred the changes brought about by the contemporary revolutions, which explains the heavy political charge of this paper.