Image Worship Research Articles

Պատկերամարտական շարժման սկզբնավորումն ու վարդապետական արձագանքը․ Վրթանես Քերթող և Հովհան Մայրագոմեցի

The iconoclastic movement in Armenia is an interesting phenomenon, which precedes the Byzantine controversies in the 8th century. Two important testimonies have been preserved in the Armenian ecclesiastical literature about the iconoclastic groups and movements in Armenia and Aghvank’ in the 6th–7th centuries: Vrt῾anes K῾ert῾oł’s treatise “Against the Iconoclasts” and the letter written by Hovhan Mayragomec῾i to Bishop David, which is included in the “History of Aghvank” by Movses Dasxowranc῾i, 10th century historian. These two complementary documents outline the origins of the iconoclastic movements in Armenia and Aghvank’, the reasons for its emergence, the geographical span and name of the movement’s authors showing the religious and theological attitude of the Armenian Church regarding the issue. The treatise of Vrt῾anes is the earliest datable defense of images in any language. The author proves necessity and importance of the icons in the churches on the basis of biblical and patristic sources, provides insightful information about the iconography and frescos of the Armenian churches in general. He cites St. John Chrysostom, Bishop Severian of Gabala, Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of the Armenian nation. Vrt῾anes is the first author to use the story of Abgar’s icon of Christ in Edessa in defense of icon use. Analyzing and studying the Armenian sources of the first stage of the iconographic movement, we come to the following conclusion: the presence of images in the church doesn’t contradict to the Holy Scriptures and the teaching of Church Fathers. We have to remember that the worship of images in Christianity has nothing to do with the idolatry described in the Old Testament, because icons were also in the Holy of Holies and in the Temple of Solomon.

Pendidikan Pradīkṣā dalam Lontar Putra Sasana

Sulinggih has two main roles, namely as a ceremonial leader and community educator. There are also two things that must be possessed by a sulinggih in order to become the main teacher for the community: mature educational experience and a good reputation. Hinduism views education as a human need. Nevertheless, Sulinggih candidates are required to undergo a more rigorous educational process with denser material. If this is the case, then a sulinggih candidate will automatically have a good reputation and be declared fit to undergo the purification ritual as a sulinggih. The follow-up impact is that the quality of education born from this process makes all people maximally educated. The influence of modernism and image worship then led to a reduction in the educational process for sulinggih candidates. This led to the emergence of cases of sulinggih individuals who violated the norms of decency, religious norms, and legal norms. Meanwhile, in Lontar Putra Sesana, the educational method for sulinggih candidates has been patterned, which includes the dimensions of pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy. The purpose of this study is to provide reference material for the correct pattern of education for a candidate for sulinggih in Hinduism. This research method is qualitative, with an emphasis on library research. The findings of this study state that Lontar Putra Sesana contains the main teachings of Pradk education, which starts at an early age until one is ready to undergo purification as a sulinggih..

Between Realism and Idealization. Contemporary Controversies Surrounding the Ways of Fulfilling the Didactic Functions of Images of Saints from a Theological and Moral Perspective

The purpose of this article is to provoke discussion on the worship of images depicting saints. However, it is not about defending this worship, since this issue has already been definitively settled by the Church. Instead, the article concerns a new problem – the controversies that arose in connection with some modern depictions of saints, mainly in painting. The mildest of these controversies involve paintings, often made on the basis of surviving photographs, showing saints during their ordinary everyday activities, e.g. while working or resting. A much sharper polarization of opinions occurs when the painting reveals the ethos of the saint with all realism, that is including also their imperfections, and even sin. Can such a saint be an object of veneration which, after all, inherently entails following them as role models? Is such veneration not an acceptance and promotion of flaws that contradict biblical morality? Can such images serve a didactic function? Instead, wouldn’t a certain idealization be advisable – the portrayal of a saint as someone perfect, excluding their flaws and weaknesses? The author takes a position on these controversies by formulating criteria for “good” images based on the theological and moral principles of their worship and an analysis of their functions.

Vedantic Hinduism in Colonial Bengal. Reformed Hinduism and Western Protestantism. By Victor A. van Bijlert

Two books that successively appeared in 2021 and have greatly held my interest are Ankur Barua’s The Brahma Samaj and its Vaishnava Milieus (Brill) and the work under review. They both represent intensive studies of the intellectual, cultural, and religious terrain of colonial Bengal through a creative fusion of the disciplines of history and religious studies. In this work, Bijlert’s thesis rests on two major arguments: First, that Vedanta constitutes the moral and intellectual backbone of reform Hinduism and second, that reform Hinduism also purposively reflects Christian Protestant forms of work and organisation. Prima facie, these are reasonable and convincing conclusions to offer. Rightly or wrongly, from Rammohun down to Radhakrishnan (with Tagore and Gandhi placed in between), Vedanta has come to be seen as the quintessential thought of India. But here also lies the catch. In effect, ‘Vedanta’ turns out to be only a somewhat convenient shorthand for a particular sub-school within Vedanta, that is, Advaita or non-dualist Vedanta, whereas in principle, it represents all sub-schools within Uttaramimamsa—which, between them, reveal significant doctrinal differences. Quite possibly, this obfuscating practice goes back to pre-modern India, but Rammohun arguably strengthened it in some ways. The Raja appears to have little knowledge of Vedantic thinkers other than Acharya Sankara and the dualist Madhva he unjustly denigrated by comparing him with Carvaka! To compound matters, Rammohun invariably refers to Upanishadic texts as ‘Vedas’. Herein lies a double confusion: First, the religious and philosophical conclusions of the Upanishads varied considerably from those of the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas but more importantly, as would emerge from a perusal of Rammohun’s writings, he had simply no idea of these other textual components. Whereas his paramaguru, Sankara, had commented on as many as ten Upanishads, Rammohun chose to comment on only five, which, I suspect, was aimed at pushing specific theological or philosophical agendas, namely the rejection of image worship, polytheism, and sectarianism. Rammohun used religion rather instrumentally, investing it with certain uncharacteristic features like social utility. How else is one to explain his oft-quoted letter stating that religion ought to promote ‘political advantage and social comfort’.

The art of image worship in China of the 17th century

The art of image worship in China of the 17th century

Panentheism and the “Most Nonsensical Superstition” of Polytheism

The German philosopher K.C.F. Krause (1781–1832) found deep conceptual parallels between his panentheistic system and the Indian philosophy of Vedānta. This article critically examines Krause’s understanding of Vedānta and popular Hindu religion. I argue that while Krause was correct in viewing the mystical panentheistic doctrine of Vedānta as a precursor to his own philosophy, he was also frequently misled by unreliable translations and secondary texts. Krause, I suggest, was mistaken in characterizing the Hindu practice of image worship as “polytheism” and “idolatry,” and I contend, from a Vedāntic standpoint, that Krause’s denial of the divinity of Jesus is inconsistent with his own panentheistic metaphysics.

„Dla pokutujących, co szli za nim, czynił procesyje z śpiewanim”. O wpływie reformy trydenckiej na różne formy pobożności (na przykładzie Żywotów świętych Piotra Skargi)

“For Those Who Followed Him He Made Processions with Singing”: On the Influence of the Tridentine Reform on Various Manifestations of Piety (on the Basis of Żywoty świętych by Piotr Skarga) The aim of the article is to present how texts such as Żywoty świętych (first edition in Vilnius, 1579) could influence the shaping of modern post-Tridentine expression of piety. Claims were advanced over the past decades that the hagiographic literature did not bring anything new to religious culture, and that on the contrary, it contributed to the consolidation of petrified, medieval patterns and thus impeded the spiritual development of an individual. Such views were articulated by researchers such as Henryk Barycz or Janusz Tazbir, who failed to recognize the threads of the new post-Tridentine theology and the related patterns and forms of piety in Skarga’s text. The analysis presented here aims to refute these claims, arguing that Żywoty is a modern text, rooted in the spirit of the Tridentine reform. Similar arguments were put forth by Anna Kapuścińska in her monograph, and by Alina Nowicka-Jeżowa in her articles on the changes in Polish religious awareness against the background of other European countries at that time. Their findings are presented in the introductory part of the article. In the next part, the author focuses on describing specific expressions of piety (such as pilgrimages, processions, image worship, etc.) and how they are reflected in Żywoty. As it turns out, these are not relics of the Middle Ages, with Skarga’s narrative overtly encouraging his readers to be active, rather than passively perpetuate the usual patterns and dogmas. Żywoty is therefore a modern work, in line with the recommendations of the Council, which is also related to the fact that its author came from the environment of the Jesuits, who were extremely progressive at the time and advocated their own concepts of spiritual development, following the teaching of the founder of the congregation, Ignacy Loyola.

Jain Image Worship and Hagiographical Literature

Jain Image Worship and Hagiographical Literature

Image Deities and Devotees

Maruthar Gopalan Ramachandran (popularly known as MGR) was the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu between 1977 and 1987. But before his famous tenure as a politician began, MGR had already cemented himself in the Tamil imagination through decades of playing the hero-saviour in blockbuster Tamil films, a suite of movies still re-watched with veneration today. Half a century prior to the pervasive social media environment we inhabit today, that turns on an equivalence between image and self, figures like MGR consciously used their star status to convert a fan following into a voter base. In this conversation, Balaji Maheshwar and Karthik Subramanian, two photographers from Tamil Nadu who are both making work exploring MGR’s legacy, open up questions around image worship, image deities and devotees, and the role of cinema in shaping our most intimate memories. Keywords: Maruthar Gopalan Ramachandran, Jayaram Jayalalitha, Tamil cinema, image worship, MGR fan clubs

Tagore on Religious Consciousness: A Study Based on the Letters Written to Indira Devi and Hemantabala Devi

The most of Tagore’s ideas expressed in his books and usual writings that draw attention by the Tagore’s scholars, a layman/woman cannot connect easily. The letters focused in this article are written in a simple language, though personal, rooted in daily experiences of Tagore himself—he shares in a very simple and lucid language. Often, the charges against Tagore’s philosophy are made that he is too idealistic and beyond realization. The paper attempts to argue based on these letters that his ideas are not that idealistic and are deeply rooted in the daily life of human beings and can be realized. Tagore’s concern is to find out the basis of the religion that unites human beings, and he is searching for it in the truth of man’s nature. Tagore realizes that teaching of religion can never be imparted in the form of lessons, but he finds it in the living personality of man. This article is trying to concentrate on the letters Tagore had written to Indira Devi and Hemantabala Devi, expressing his religious thinking. The eagerness to realize the unity of the soul of man and universe with the Universal Man expressed the letters to Indira Devi. The criticism towards the blind faiths of Hinduism and image worship focuses on the letters to Hemantabala Devi. Many essential documents are expressing the religious thinking of Tagore, but these letters are the purest expressions of him and reflect a live image of Tagore’s mind.

Iconolatry and Pentecostal Christianity: The Nigerian Experience

This work “iconolatry and the African Christianity: the Nigerian experience”, examines the resurgence of the veneration and otherwise the worship of icons and symbols that shook the foundation of the early church history now in Nigerian Christianity. It could be recalled that iconolatry as the worship of images or icons, was one of the major issues in Christian history that led to the iconoclastic controversy in the 8th century of Christianity (c725 to 787). More so, iconolatry was one of the burning issues in the 16th century protestant reformation that vehemently criticized the Roman Catholic Church for idolatry. From the historical perspective of the contemporary trend in African Christianity, especially in Nigeria, this work observed that image worship or veneration has taken a center stage in the beliefs and practices of the entire spectrum of faith in Nigerian Christianity, especially the new Christian religious movements here represented by the Pentecostals. This paper is therefore poised to lead the Nigerian church (Christianity) to cast a retrospective look at Christian history to guide against the obvious resurgent of iconolatry for which the church suffered a great deal in history.Key Words: Iconolatry, African Christianity, Pentecostal, Pentecostalism, Catholicism, Idolatry, Nigeria, Iconography

Keshab Chandra Sen and Hindu Image Worship

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–84) was a prominent social and religious reformer in Kolkata. In 1857, he joined the Brahmo Samaj, which was known for its emphasis on the scriptural texts, the Upaniṣads, and the concomitant rejection of popular expressions of Hinduism, such as image worship. An aim of the Samaj was to focus on a core common to all religions, lying beyond rituals and doctrines. With time, Sen and other young members broke with the Brahmo Samaj over issues of authority and ideology. In 1866, they formed a new institution, the Brahmo Samaj of India. Sen articulated an agenda for this new organization, that being the harmonization of religions by integrating their different aspects. Contrary to the aims of the original Samaj, this led to an increasing focus on religious particularities, first with saints and prophets, and later coming to include aspects of image worship. In fact, in 1881, Sen performed a hybridized set of rituals that partially drew upon the latter. This was an ironic change, given that a defining characteristic of the original Samaj was the rejection of all forms of image worship, and given that Sen's opposition to it was initially even stronger than that of the majority membership. A need for concreteness in religious devotion was one of the motivating forces behind this fifteen-year development.

Obrona kultu obrazów w Trzech mowach apologetycznych przeciwko tym, którzy odrzucają święte obrazy św. Jana Damasceńskiego

St John of Damascus was one of the first theologians who shaped thetheology of images. His theology was born in the difficult historical circumstancesof the first iconoclasm. This is why it was not always up to thetask. But it was John who first defined the image as the object of worshipand gave a number of convincing arguments for worshiping them. The basicsource of knowledge about the theology of the icon of John of Damascus ishis Three Apologetic Treatises against those Decrying the Holy Images. Onthis basis, I presented the definitions of the cult of images and the varioustypes of worship, then the arguments used by St. John of Damascus inorder to validate the worship of images in the context of the Old Testamentprohibition on the creation of images and the Christian worship of thesaints. Finally, I presented John’s theology as an expression of the Church’sindependence from the emperor’s power and his attitude to ecclesiasticaltradition, especially to the opinions of the Fathers of the Church.

“Religion of Images”?


 
 
 This paper explores how image worship was conceptualized and represented by Chinese authors during the first four centuries of Buddhist presence in China (to roughly 500 CE). Previous scholarship has argued that image worship was initially seen in China as a distinctively Buddhist practice, so much so that Buddhism was even known to the Chinese as the “Religion of Images” (xiangjiao 像教). By examining the history of the interpretation of this term, the evolution of stories about sacred images, and the presentation (or lack thereof) of image worship in debates about the compatibility of Buddhism with Chinese culture, I will argue that image worship was first seen as a distinctly Buddhist or non-Chinese practice only in the late fifth century. Ironically, image worship came to be seen or represented as “foreign” only long after it had already become part of most forms of Chinese religion.
 
 

The Āyāgapaṭas of Mathura

The Mathura school is known for its beautiful sculpture but the āyāgapaṭas, which were an integral part of this school, have not received the attention they deserve. The āyāgapaṭas are stone slabs carved in low relief generally depicting either an image of Jina or dharmacakra in the centre. Some of them also show stūpas. Those which are carved with an object of worship in the centre are also surrounded by aṣṭamaṅgalas. Thus, they were not merely slabs of stone masonry; rather they were unique artefacts signifying the worship of symbols and images combined in one beautifully carved stone slab. The religious connotation of āyāgapaṭas is known from the inscriptions engraved on them which mention that they were set up for the worship of arhats (tīrthaṅkaras). From these epigraphs, we get to know that the Jains started donating these carved slabs in first century BCE and continued this practice till the third century CE at Mathura. This paper aims to understand the āyāgapaṭa inscriptions in the context of the religious imagery carved on them.

ALIMENTAÇÃO, CORPO E SUBJETIVIDADES NA EDUCAÇÃO FÍSICA E NA NUTRIÇÃO: O RANÇO DA ADIPOSIDADE E A ASCENSÃO DOS MÚSCULOS

The aim of this paper is to discuss issues related to body image among undergraduate students in Physical Education and Nutrition programs at a public university in the city of Rio de Janeiro. This study has a socio-anthropological nature in the field of Public Health. The methodological strategy was to articulate participant observation and informal and formal interviews with these students. We found that the students feel pressured to be role models of good eating habits and body practices; in other words, to have behaviors considered as healthy. In addition, they must have a body image that meets the current esthetic standards. This is a discourse that prevails among them, both inside and outside the academic environment. Values relative to youth, sex and body esthetics are mobilized in such environment and associated with social life, distinctive positions in a strongly hierarchical society, and reactions to social norms and rules, among other features in the consumer society, where body image worship tends to be hegemonic. DOI: 10.12957/demetra.2016.21995

Spells, Images, and Mandalas: Tracing The Evolution of Esoteric Buddhist Rituals By KoichiShinohara. The Sheng Yen Series in Chinese Buddhist Studies. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014. Pp. xxii + 324. Hardcover, $55.00.

An important book by the right person, this study illuminates the rather arcane history of the development of the Buddhist esoteric ritual tradition from simple spells of a worldly nature, through the incorporation of image worship, and eventually to the utilization of complex visualizations. By focusing on early texts preserved in Chinese translation, Shinohara, in his own words, counters past scholarship which, “so far has privileged the Mahāvairocana and Vajraśekhara sūtras.” In so doing, his study stands as a model for the field for how to sensibly employ Chinese sources in the study of concepts, texts, and practices of Indic origin. Shinohara's study concentrates on describing precisely how esoteric rituals developed, and as such leaves little room for explaining why. Indeed, readers may be left curious as to what larger social, political, and economic forces may have supported the increasing intricacy and pomp of esoteric ritual, a topic not dealt with in the book though surely within the grasp of the author. Spells, Images, and Maṇḍalas should be considered a seminal work; by wading through a trove of difficult textual material, Shinohara has set a new standard for the study of esoteric ritual and has laid the necessary groundwork for future studies to be able to engage with the wider social context of the larger esoteric tradition.

The Veneration of Imperial Images between the Constantinian and Theodosian dinasties

In this text we try to carry out an analysis of the emperor model proposed by the pagane orators Libanius and Temistius at the end of the fourth Century AD. They propose an ideal emperor in accordance with traditions, based on the virtues of the emperor, especially on philanthropy, even accepting the Christianity of the ruler. However, this emperor model is against the Christian thought, mainly in the veneration of the emperor, the imperial cult and the worship of images. The point of view of Christianity based on aniconism will gradually displace the traditional Roman ritual and it will consider many elements related to the importance of images as idolatry.

Vybrané otázky z christologie a soteriologie třetí knihy Komentáře Sentencí M. Jana Husa

The author provides evidence in the paper that Hus' christology and soteriology do not depart from the boundaries of Catholic orthodoxy. Although Hus' theology was time-conditioned, the author finds compelling questions therein (in contrast to modern commentators). Hus worked on the third book in the first semester of the academic year 1408/1409, which was a time involving a dramatic turn in his fate. Hus' christology and soteriology is shaped in Anselm's manner. It contains thought-provoking statements about Christ's predestination, about his natural mortality, about the reverence of Christ's humanity and about the worship of images. Hus' theology of history focuses on the incarnation as the climax and fulfilment of the history of the world. The concept of Christ's sinlessness, not excluding the ability to sin, is also interesting. In the conclusion, the author brings to light certain inconsistencies contained in the first half of the third book of Hus' Commentary on Sentences.

Contesting the Colonial Gaze: Image Worship Debates in Nineteenth-Century Bengal

This essay will closely examine the role of image worship or murtipuja in Bengal during the nineteenth century. The worship of murtis (divinely embodied icons) was central to Hindus across the subcontinent but assumed particular political significance in Bengal. Condemned by colonial officials and Christian missionaries as irrational and blasphemous, murtipuja became a contested practice, compelling the Bengali literati to debate and question its validity and place in Hindu culture. Torn between exposure to critical Western influence and a need to reconnect with their indigenous traditions, the literati deliberated on the most authentic mode of worship, whether of a personal god through murtipuja, or of an impersonal, Absolute God without form. A further dimension to the discourse was added by the colonial tendency to treat murtis as though they were art historical artefacts devoid of sacred value. This essay will analyse the polemical nature of the debates during this key time in the formation of modern Hinduism, and will also address theological concepts such as darshan (sacred vision) in order to elucidate the historical discussion.