Workplace Homicides Research Articles

Assessing the Magnitude of Nonworker Deaths During Workplace Homicide Incidents: An Epidemiological Analysis Using the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS).

Recent workplace homicide investigations have noted that the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) has several limitations that reduce our ability to understand who dies as part of a workplace homicide incident. We sought to assess the magnitude of nonworker deaths associated with workplace homicide incidents. Using National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) data from 2003 to 2017, we employed a descriptive epidemiological investigation. The counts of worker and nonworker deaths during a workplace homicide incident were ascertained, as well as other characteristics (e.g., gender, age, mechanism of death, and race/ethnicity). We used multiple logistic regression to estimate the relationship between incident characteristics and the odds of having a nonworker death. Across the study period, there were 2,020 workplace homicides. The number of deaths associated with workplace homicide incidents increased 8.2% when considering nonworker deaths (n = 2,186). Including those nonfatally shot as part of a workplace homicide incident increased causalities by 18.2% (n = 2,388). If a firearm was used during perpetration, the odds that a nonworker was killed during a workplace homicide incident increased 3.76 times (95% confidence interval: 2.03, 6.96). Considering nonworkers killed as part of workplace homicide incidents is essential to understanding the true magnitude of violence associated with these incidents. Likely, it is the lethality of firearms that greatly increases the likelihood that nonworkers are killed as part a workplace homicide incident. To best understand the epidemiology of workplace homicide incident, we recommend CFOI adopt an incident-based method for coding workplace deaths.

State-Level Changes in Firearm Laws and Workplace Homicide Rates: United States, 2011 to 2017.

Objectives. To test whether year-over-year strengthening of state-level firearm laws is associated with decreases in workplace homicide rates.Methods. In this time-series ecological study of working people in all 50 US states, we used federal data on workplace homicides by state and year from 2011 to 2017, linked to an index of state-year firearm laws, to characterize the regulatory environment (overall and within legislative categories). We used generalized linear regression to model associations between changes in firearm laws and changes in workplace homicide rates the following year.Results. From 2011 to 2017, more than 3000 people died as a result of workplace homicides; over that period, 23 states strengthened firearm regulations and 23 weakened them. We modeled the impact of states strengthening laws within the interquartile range (IQR; equivalent to adding 20.5 firearm laws). This change was associated with a 3.7% reduction in the workplace homicide rate (95% confidence interval [CI] = -3.86, -3.51). Positive IQR changes in specific categories of firearm laws-concealed carry permitting (-5.79%; 95% CI = -6.09, -3.51), domestic violence-related restrictions (-5.31%; 95% CI = -5.57, -5.05), and background checks (-5.07%; 95% CI = -5.32, -4.82)-were also associated with significant reductions.Conclusions. Strengthening state-level firearm laws may reduce the population-level mortality and morbidity burden posed by workplace homicides.

Right-to-Carry Laws and Firearm Workplace Homicides: A Longitudinal Analysis (1992-2017).

Objectives. To examine the impact of right-to-carry (RTC) firearm laws on firearm workplace homicides (WPHs) in the United States from 1992 to 2017.Methods. We employed 2 longitudinal methods to examine the average effect (pooled, cross-sectional, time-series analysis) and the state-specific effect (random effects meta-analysis) of RTC laws on WPHs committed by firearms from 1992 to 2017 in a 50-state panel. Both methods utilized a generalized linear mixed model with a negative binomial distribution.Results. From 1992 to 2017, the average effect of having an RTC law was significantly associated with 29% higher rates of firearm WPHs (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.14, 1.45). No other state-level policies were associated with firearm WPHs. Sensitivity analyses suggest robust findings. State-specific estimates suggest that passing an RTC law during our study period was significantly associated with 24% increase in firearm WPH rates (95% CI = 1.09, 1.40).Conclusions. This is the first study to our knowledge to examine the link between RTC firearm laws and firearm WPHs. Findings indicate that RTC laws likely pose a threat to worker safety and contribute to the recent body of literature that finds RTC laws are associated with increased incidence of violence.

Workplace Homicides in Northern Tunisia: A 15-Year Study (2003-2017).

Death in workplaces remains a public health issue. However, data regarding workplace homicides are scarce in most of regions, especially in the Arab world. The aim of our study was to analyze the epidemiological features of workplace homicides in northern Tunisia. This is a descriptive study with retrospective data collection over a 15-year period (January 2003 to December 2017). We recorded 50 workplace homicide cases. Sex ratio was 49:1 (male/female). The mean age was 41.6 ± 15.13 years. Occupations the most at risk were security guards (odds ratio, 8.25; 95% confidence interval, 4.28-15.91; P < 0.0001) and taxi drivers (odds ratio, 5.61; 95% confidence interval, 2.39-13.18; P < 0.00001). The motive of the aggression was either interpersonal conflict or robbery (47.9% and 43.8%, respectively). Victims working as security guards or taxi drivers were most frequently assaulted by an unknown perpetrator, the motive being robbery. Death was most frequently secondary to blunt trauma (n = 20) or stab wounds (n = 15). Workplace homicides represent a substantial phenomenon in Tunisia. The application of prevention measures is required based on improving environmental measures targeting, in priority, security guards and taxi drivers.

Workplace homicides committed by firearm: recent trends and narrative text analysis

BackgroundFirearm workplace homicides are a significant problem in the United States. We sought to provide a current, national-level examination of these crimes and examine how perpetrators accessed firearms used in workplace homicides.MethodsWe abstracted information on all firearm workplace homicides from the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries from 2011 to 2015. We classified deaths by perpetrator’s relationship to the workplace/victim, motive (robbery v. non-robbery), circumstance (argument v. other circumstances), and firearm access points using narrative text fields.ResultsThere were 1553 firearm workplace homicides during the study period. Robbery crime trended downward from 2011 to 2015. In contrast, non-robbery crimes constituted almost 50% of the homicides and trended upward in recent years. Customers and co-workers were the most frequent perpetrators of non-robbery crimes, most after an argument. While customers and co-workers who commit these crimes were often armed at the time of the argument, some were not and retrieved a firearm from an unspecified location before committing a homicide. Thus, immediate and ready firearm access was commonly observed in argumentative workplace deaths.ConclusionsLimiting firearm access in the workplace is a possible measure for preventing deadly workplace violence and should be considered as part of a comprehensive strategy for addressing this reemerging public health concern.

Non‐robbery‐related occupational homicides in the retail industry, 2003–2008

The purpose of this study was to examine non-robbery-related occupational homicides in the retail industry from 2003 to 2008. Data were abstracted from the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries. Motive (robbery- or non-robbery-related) and workplace violence (WPV) typology (Type I-IV) were assigned using narrative text fields. Non-robbery-related homicide rates were calculated and compared among WPV types, demographic characteristics, and occupation. Twenty-eight percent of homicides that occurred in the retail industry were non-robbery-related. The leading event associated with non-robbery-related homicides was Type II (perpetrated by customers) (34%), followed by Type IV (perpetrated by personal relationship) (31%). The majority of homicides were due to arguments (50%). Security guards and workers in drinking establishments had the highest homicide rates per 100,000 workers (14.3 and 6.0, respectively). Non-robbery-related homicides comprised a meaningful proportion of workplace homicides in the retail industry. Research is needed to develop strategies to prevent non-robbery-related homicides specifically.

Dark Knights Rising: The Aurora Theater and Newtown School Massacres and Shareholder Wealth

PurposeThis study analyzes the stock price impact of the Aurora theater and Newtown (Sandy Hook) school massacres on both domestic (US) and foreign theater operators and US gun manufacturers in an effort to document the economic effects of these tragedies. MethodsThe well-established “event study” methodology from the fields of economics and finance is employed to assess the impact of the shootings on the affected companies after controlling for risk and overall market movements. ResultsThe Aurora theater shooting resulted in striking declines for Cinemark (the targeted theater) as well as major US competitors, but had no impact on overseas theater chains. Smith & Wesson (maker of the gun used in Aurora) showed no response, whereas Ruger (a competitor) exhibited large gains. Both Smith & Wesson and Ruger plunged after the Newtown shooting, although neither made the weapons used in the shooting. ConclusionsContrary to prior research on workplace homicides, the results show that random mass shootings have profound effects on targeted companies. In addition, the results suggest the presence of a very strong “contagion effect” (where negative events affecting one company impact others in the same industry). The negative responses of both publicly-traded US firearms manufacturers to the Newtown shooting suggests a “sea-change” in the debate over gun ownership in the US.

An Examination of Strategies for Preventing Workplace Homicides Committed by Perpetrators That Have a Prior Relationship With the Workplace or Its Employees

To determine whether recommended robbery prevention strategies also protect against workplace homicide committed by a perpetrator who has a relationship with either the workplace or an employee (prior-relationship homicide). A case-control study examining the relationship between recommended violence prevention strategies and prior-relationship workplace homicides in North Carolina was conducted. Workplaces located in an industrial park, employing minorities, reporting a history of violence, open night hours, or open 24 hours were more likely to experience prior-relationship homicide. Keeping entrances to the workplace locked when employees were present (OR = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.13, 0.99) and having at least one security device (OR = 0.28, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.74) decreased the odds of prior-relationship homicide. Select strategies recommended to prevent robberies and subsequent violence may also afford protection against prior-relationship homicide.

Workplace Homicides Among U.S. Women: The Role of Intimate Partner Violence

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an important public health issue with serious consequences for the workplace. Workplace homicides occurring to U.S. women over a 6-year period, including those perpetrated by an intimate partner, are described. Workplace homicides among U.S. women from 2003 to 2008 were categorized into type I (criminal intent), type II (customer/client), type III (co-worker), or type IV (personal relations) events using the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries. Fatality rates were calculated and compared among workplace violence (WPV) types, occupations, and characteristics including location of homicide, type of workplace, time of day, and weapon used. Between 2003 and 2008, 648 women were feloniously killed on the job. The leading cause of workplace homicide for U.S. women was criminal intent, such as robbing a store (n = 212; 39%), followed by homicides perpetrated by a personal relation (n = 181; 33%). The majority of these personal relations were intimate partners (n = 142; 78%). Over half of workplace homicides perpetrated by intimate partners occurred in parking lots and public buildings (n = 91; 51%). A large percentage of homicides occurring to women at work are perpetrated by intimate partners. WPV prevention programs should incorporate strategies to prevent and respond to IPV.

Contrasting Robbery- and Non–Robbery-Related Workplace Homicide: North Carolina, 1994–2003

Most research regarding the perpetration of occupational homicide has focused on robbery-related violence; relatively little is known about the circumstances surrounding non-robbery-related occupational homicides and interventions that may prevent these events. A case series was assembled and utilized to examine occupational homicides that were and were not motivated by robbery to determine if select characteristics of the events differed according to the perpetrator's motivation for the crime and relationship to the workplace. Information on occupational homicides that occurred in North Carolina from 1994 to 2003 was abstracted from medical examiners' records and death certificates and was obtained by interviews with law-enforcement officers and from newspaper accounts (data collection occurred in 1996-2001 and 2003-2007). Each homicide was classified by motive and the perpetrator's relationship to the workplace and its employees. Characteristics of robbery-motivated and non-robbery-motivated homicides were compared. Analysis was conducted in 2006 and 2007. Most occupational homicides occurred during robbery of the workplace (64%). However, 36% of occupational homicides during the study period were not robbery-related. Strangers perpetrated 73% of robbery-related killings but only 11% of non-robbery-related homicides. Homicides unrelated to robbery occurred in several industrial sectors, including retail (28%); service (26%); and manufacturing (22%), whereas robbery-related homicides occurred overwhelmingly in retail (67%). The type of firearm used to perpetrate these killings differed by the perpetrator's relationship to the workplace. Non-robbery-related homicides constitute a meaningful proportion of occupational homicides, and the characteristics of these cases can differ from those that are robbery-related. The current system by which workplace homicides are classified could be expanded to include robbery motivation. Efforts to examine occupational-homicide-prevention strategies for non-robbery-related homicides are important.

Work–related fatal injuries in parking lots, 1993–2002

ProblemAlthough parking facilities are a common feature of the landscape in the United States, little is known about their safety. MethodA dataset of parking lot fatalities for 1993–2002, created from the Census of Fatal Occupational Injury (CFOI) research file, was analyzed. ResultsThe most common events in parking lots were contact with objects (15%), pedestrian fatalities (13%), homicides (36%), and suicides (11%). The perpetrators of parking lot fatalities, compared to all workplace homicides, were more likely to be known to the victim. ConclusionThe 206 work–related fatalities per year in parking lots present challenges to the safety community. Although much of the risk results from the usage of motor vehicles, violent acts are even more prominent. Impact on industryBecause homicides are most prevalent in parking lots, both administrative and environmental measures may lower the risk of homicide. Although difficult to assess, various elements of the design of parking facilities may have an influence on the occurrence of injuries.

An Overview of Workplace and School Violence Prevention

Abstract The safety of the American workplace began to change in the 1980s. The killings of 14 postal workers by a co-worker at the U.S. Postal Service in Edmond, Oklahoma, in 1986, and numerous other similar homicides in the early 1990s, resulted in workplace violence being one of the greatest concerns of employers in the United States. Considerable attention and research has involved the causes of workplace violence, the types and characteristics of the perpetrators, and the presence of warning signs. A number of comprehensive programs are now available, and are designed to prevent violence in the nation's workplaces and schools. Although workplace homicides have declined by approximately thirty percent over the past decade, the need for further research continues.

Trends in workplace homicides in the U.S., 1993–2002: A decade of decline

Trends in workplace homicide rates are compared to the trends in U.S. homicides from 1993 to 2002, inclusively. The homogeneity of workplace homicide rates by victim demographics, circumstances, and types of events are also addressed. Using publicly available data from several sources, Poisson models are used to statistically compare the trends of workplace homicide rates versus U.S. homicide rates and to compare trends within categories of workplace homicides. Overall, there was a significant decline in the rates of occupational homicide of approximately 6% per year during the study time period; this decline was found to be statistically greater than the decline of all U.S. homicides (5% per year). Taxi cab drivers and chauffeurs demonstrated the greatest decline of all occupational subgroups. When looking at the circumstances of workplace homicides, only the rate of homicides committed during a robbery or other crime demonstrated a significant decline. While workplace homicides have declined in the U.S., the declines have not occurred uniformly across demographic and occupational categories.

Societal cost of workplace homicides in the United States, 1992-2001

The Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) reported 8,672 workplace homicide victims between 1992 and 2001. Although rarely calculated, cost estimates are important for prevention and research efforts. Societal costs were estimated using the cost-of-illness approach applied to CFOI data. The cost calculation model incorporated medical expenses, future earnings summed from the year of death until the year the decedent would have been 67, and household production losses (includes activities such as child care and housework). Workplace homicide had a total cost of nearly 6.5 billion dollars and a mean cost of 800,000 dollars between 1992 and 2001. The retail trade industry division had the highest number of homicides and total cost, 2.1 billion dollars, for males and 556,000 dollars for females. Estimates of the cost of work-related homicides can be used to improve occupational injury prevention and control program planning, policy analysis, evaluation of safety and health interventions, and advocacy for a safer work environment.

Workplace Homicides in Chicago

Using data from police records, this study examined risk factors related to 940 workplace homicides occurring in Chicago between 1965 and 1990. Black men were predominantly both victims (49%) and offenders (75%). The median age for victims was 42 years, but only 25 years for offenders. Women (40%) were more likely than men (6%) to be killed by intimates. Firearms were involved in 83% of all homicides, and robbery was the primary motive (62%). Workplace homicides occurred most frequently in taverns (22%). Alcohol use by tavern workers was involved in 48% of the homicides. Wide disparity in the number of workplace homicides occurred in Chicago's 77 community areas. Strategies to deter robbery and alcohol use, as well as to prevent domestic violence in the workplace, need to be implemented and evaluated. Occupational health nurses play a pivotal role in effective violence prevention.

The role of surveillance and evaluation research in the reduction of violence against workers

Background: Violence against workers is garnering increased attention as awareness grows of the toll violent events have on workers and work environments. Methods: In this review, we summarize information about surveillance of violent events in the workplace and summarize evaluations of intervention programs to reduce such violence. We describe surveillance programs that nationally collect data, and we compare some data. We summarize two systematic studies of workplace violence–prevention programs: The first study examined evaluations of the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design approach to prevention, and the second examined evaluations of behavioral and administrative interventions. Results: Reliable national data sets of worker homicides exist, but case identification and coding problems have yet to be solved. Although the number of workplace homicides has decreased since the mid-1990s, much less is known about the incidence of nonfatal events. The role that prevention programs have played in reducing workplace homicide remains largely unknown because so few evaluations have been conducted. Conclusions: Information about effective methods to reduce violence against workers is needed. Research that evaluates existing prevention programs, especially efforts conducted in a collaborative manner, will be invaluable to shaping effective programs in the future.

Killed on the clock: a population-based study of workplace homicide, 1977-1991.

This paper describes the epidemiology of workplace homicides in North Carolina, with emphasis on the circumstances. Workplace homicide victims were identified by and data were abstracted from the North Carolina medical examiner system. Workplace homicide rates are highest for men, older and self-employed workers, minorities and specific occupations, especially taxi drivers. Robberies, mostly in retail settings, accounted for half of the cases, while 20% were known to involve disputes, the contexts of which differed by sex. Women were most likely to be killed by estranged partners. Preventive strategies need to address the specific contexts in which workplace homicide occurs, such as retail and taxi robberies, and law enforcement officers interacting with suspects. A workplace response to domestic violence is also needed. Other areas for future research and intervention include environmental modifications, employee screening and training, and identifying more inclusive occupational data sources.

Debunking the Stereotype

Much attention has been devoted in the past several years to public incidents of mass murder. Events such as the shooting on a Long Island commuter train in 1993, the massacre in Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas, in 1991, or the seemingly numerous workplace homicides have received intensive media coverage and public interest. As a consequence, a stereotype of mass murder has emerged that may or may not be very accurate. This study examines incidents of mass murder that occurred in public settings in the United States between 1965 and 1995 to more closely scrutinize both the events and the offenders involved.

Violence in the Workplace

This integrative review of research on workplace violence in Canada and the United States showed that risk factors for homicide and nonfatal assault injuries differed significantly. In 1993, there were 1,063 work-related homicides in the United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1994). Workplace homicide was the second leading cause of fatal occupational injuries overall, but the primary cause for women. The highest risk for workplace homicide was observed among males, the self-employed, and those employed in grocery stores, eating and drinking establishments, gas service stations, taxicab services, and government service, including law enforcement. The majority of workplace homicides occurred during robberies. Unlike workplace homicide, the majority of nonfatal assaults that involved lost work time occurred to women, primarily employed in health care or other service sector work. The assault rates for residential care and nursing and personal care workers were more than ten times that of private non-health care industries. Minimal intervention research has been reported. In recent years, some governmental agencies and professional organizations have begun to address policy issues related to workplace violence.

Workplace Violence

Homicide is the leading cause of fatal occupational injuries for women and accounts for 39% of all fatal injuries for women at work. Using medical examiner and coroner reports, this study analyzed female workplace homicides in three counties within metropolitan Chicago from 1984 to 1990. These workplace homicides were compared to non-workplace homicides of women. There were 1,354 female homicides; of the 17 workplace homicides, all occurred in Cook County. The annual rate of female occupational homicides was higher (1.5/10(5)) for Cook County, while for the metropolitan Chicago area (Cook, DuPage, and Lake counties) it was 1.19/10(5). Black women experienced a higher workplace homicide rate (2.3/10(5)) than white women (1.2/10(5)). Most of these occupational homicides occurred in retail trade, predominately in eating and drinking establishments; robbery was a frequent occurrence, and the women often worked alone. Only three medical examiner reports cited a known assailant. The leading cause of death was from gunshot wounds. Workplace homicides were similar to non-workplace homicides in relation to age, race, and cause of death. Identified risk factors associated with workplace homicides, as well as non-fatal assaults, should be used to develop effective preventive measures. A national standard for general workplace security also is needed.