Working Memory Training Intervention Research Articles

Change in Resting-State Functional Connectivity Following Working Memory Training in Individuals With Repetitive Negative Thinking

BackgroundRepetitive negative thinking (RNT) symptoms, which are characterized by pervasive, uncontrollable negative thoughts, are common in individuals with mood, anxiety, and traumatic stress disorders. Inability to regulate the contents of working memory is a hypothesized etiological factor in RNT, which suggests that training to improve working memory may be beneficial. This study examined the effects of working memory training on resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) in individuals with elevated RNT and whether such changes would be associated with clinical improvement. MethodsWe conducted a secondary analysis of pre-post resting-state data collected as part of a randomized controlled trial (NCT04912089) of working memory training interventions (n = 42) compared with a waitlist control group (n = 23). We hypothesized that individuals who completed training would show increased rsFC between the 2 key intrinsic connectivity networks—the default mode network (posterior cingulate cortex) and the frontoparietal network (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). We explored whether the magnitude of rsFC change was associated with change in RNT symptom severity. ResultsrsFC increased between the posterior cingulate cortex and regions including the frontal and parietal cortex in the training group compared with the waitlist group. Increased connectivity between the posterior cingulate cortex and superior frontal cortex was associated with RNT symptom reduction. ConclusionsThese data provide evidence that working memory training can modulate neural circuitry at rest in individuals with RNT. Results are consistent with accounts of working memory training effects on large-scale neurocircuitry changes and suggest that these changes may contribute to clinical promise of this type of intervention on transdiagnostic RNT symptoms.

73. Preliminary Efficacy Findings for a Placebo Controlled Randomized Clinical Trial of a Novel Executive Working Memory Training Intervention for Adolescents With ADHD

73. Preliminary Efficacy Findings for a Placebo Controlled Randomized Clinical Trial of a Novel Executive Working Memory Training Intervention for Adolescents With ADHD

Working Memory Training for Children Using the Adaptive, Self-Select, and Stepwise Approaches to Setting the Difficulty Level of Training Activities: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

A common yet untested assumption of cognitive training in children is that activities should be adaptive, with difficulty adjusted to the individual's performance in order to maximize improvements on untrained tasks (known as transfer). Working memory training provides the ideal testbed to systematically examine this assumption as it is one of the most widely studied domains in the cognitive training literature, and is critical for children's learning, including following instructions and reasoning. This trial aimed to examine children's outcomes of working memory training using adaptive, self-select (child selects difficulty level), and stepwise (difficulty level increases incrementally) approaches to setting the difficulty of training activities compared to an active control condition immediately and 6-month postintervention. While the aim is exploratory, we hypothesized that children allocated to a working memory training condition would show greater improvements: (1) on near transfer measures compared to intermediate and far transfer measures and (2) immediately postintervention compared to 6-month postintervention. This double-blinded, active-controlled, parallel-group randomized trial aimed to recruit 128 children aged 7 to 11 years from 1 metropolitan primary school in Melbourne, Australia. Following baseline testing, children were randomized into 1 of 4 conditions: adaptive, self-select, or stepwise working memory training, or active control. An experimental intervention embedded in Minecraft was developed for teachers to deliver in class over 2 consecutive weeks (10 × 20-minute sessions). The working memory training comprised 2 training activities with processing demands similar to daily activities: backward span and following instructions. The control comprised creative activities. Pre- and postintervention, children completed a set of working memory tests (near and intermediate transfer) and the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (far transfer) to determine training outcomes, as well as motivation questionnaires to determine if motivations toward learning and the intervention were similar across conditions. Caregivers completed the ADHD-Rating Scale-5 to measure their child's attention (far transfer). Statistical analysis will include traditional null hypothesis significance testing and Bayesian methods to quantify evidence for both the null and alternative hypotheses. Data collection concluded in December 2022. Data are currently being processed and analyzed. This trial will determine whether the adaptive approach to setting the difficulty of training activities maximizes cognitive training outcomes for children. This trial has several strengths: it adopts best practices for cognitive training studies (design, methods, and analysis plan); uses a range of measures to detect discrete levels of transfer; has a 6-month postintervention assessment; is appropriately powered; and uses an experimental working memory training intervention based on our current understanding of the cognitive mechanisms of training. Findings will inform future research and design of cognitive training interventions and highlight the value of the evidence-based principles of cognitive training. Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, ACTRN12621000990820; https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621000990820.aspx. DERR1-10.2196/47496.

Expectation effects in working memory training

There is a growing body of research focused on developing and evaluating behavioral training paradigms meant to induce enhancements in cognitive function. It has recently been proposed that one mechanism through which such performance gains could be induced involves participants' expectations of improvement. However, no work to date has evaluated whether it is possible to cause changes in cognitive function in a long-term behavioral training study by manipulating expectations. In this study, positive or negative expectations about cognitive training were both explicitly and associatively induced before either a working memory training intervention or a control intervention. Consistent with previous work, a main effect of the training condition was found, with individuals trained on the working memory task showing larger gains in cognitive function than those trained on the control task. Interestingly, a main effect of expectation was also found, with individuals given positive expectations showing larger cognitive gains than those who were given negative expectations (regardless of training condition). No interaction effect between training and expectations was found. Exploratory analyses suggest that certain individual characteristics (e.g., personality, motivation) moderate the size of the expectation effect. These results highlight aspects of methodology that can inform future behavioral interventions and suggest that participant expectations could be capitalized on to maximize training outcomes.

The relationship between cognitive ability and motivation during cognitive tasks of varying complexity

Variations in sample motivation have contributed to inconsistent outcomes for the efficacy of computerised working memory training interventions. One potential contributor to motivational variance is the participants’ capacity to respond to the demands of experimental tasks – their cognitive ability. To explore whether cognitive ability is related to intrinsic motivation in a working memory task commonly used in working memory training protocols, undergraduate students (N = 113) completed a single session of the adaptive N-back task and a Go/no-go type control task. The range in achievement on the N-back (M = 3.72, SD = 0.80) and on the Go/no-go task (M = 86 %, SD = 8%) allowed for an examination of ability driven differences in motivation. Participants reported the challenging but achievable Go/no-go task as more intrinsically motivating than the N-back task, and higher ability was associated with greater intrinsic motivation and use of more effort during both tasks. The results of this cross-sectional study suggest that equal motivation should not be assumed between groups engaging in tasks of varying complexity, nor between participants of varying cognitive ability.

Dual n-back training improves functional connectivity of the right inferior frontal gyrus at rest

Several studies have shown that the benefits of working memory (WM) training can be attributed to functional and structural neural changes in the underlying neural substrate. In the current study, we investigated whether the functional connectivity of the brain at rest in the default mode network (DMN) changes with WM training. We varied the complexity of the training intervention so, that half of the participants attended dual n-back training whereas the other half attended single n-back training. This way we could assess the effects of different training task parameters on possible connectivity changes. After 16 training sessions, the dual n-back training group showed improved performance accompanied by increased functional connectivity of the ventral DMN in the right inferior frontal gyrus, which correlated with improvements in WM. We also observed decreased functional connectivity in the left superior parietal cortex in this group. The single n-back training group did not show significant training-related changes. These results show that a demanding short-term WM training intervention can alter the default state of the brain.

Cognitive Training Deep Dive: The Impact of Child, Training Behavior and Environmental Factors within a Controlled Trial of Cogmed for Fragile X Syndrome.

Children with fragile X syndrome (FXS) exhibit deficits in a variety of cognitive processes within the executive function domain. As working memory (WM) is known to support a wide range of cognitive, learning and adaptive functions, WM computer-based training programs have the potential to benefit people with FXS and other forms of intellectual and developmental disability (IDD). However, research on the effectiveness of WM training has been mixed. The current study is a follow-up “deep dive” into the data collected during a randomized controlled trial of Cogmed (Stockholm, Sweden) WM training in children with FXS. Analyses characterized the training data, identified training quality metrics, and identified subgroups of participants with similar training patterns. Child, parent, home environment and training quality metrics were explored in relation to the clinical outcomes during the WM training intervention. Baseline cognitive level and training behavior metrics were linked to gains in WM performance-based assessments and also to reductions in inattention and other behaviors related to executive functioning during the intervention. The results also support a recommendation that future cognitive intervention trials with individuals with IDD such as FXS include additional screening of participants to determine not only baseline feasibility, but also capacity for training progress over a short period prior to inclusion and randomization. This practice may also better identify individuals with IDD who are more likely to benefit from cognitive training in clinical and educational settings.

Working memory training increases neural efficiency in Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled trial.

Impairment of working memory and executive functions is already frequently observed in early stages of Parkinson’s disease. Improvements in working memory performance in this cohort could potentially be achieved via working memory training. However, the specific neural mechanisms underlying different working memory processes such as maintenance as opposed to manipulation are largely under-investigated in Parkinson’s disease. Moreover, the plasticity of these correlates as a function of working memory training is currently unknown in this population. Thus, the working memory subprocesses of maintenance and manipulation were assessed in 41 cognitively healthy patients with Parkinson’s disease using a newly developed working memory paradigm and functional MRI. Nineteen patients were randomized to a 5-week home-based digital working memory training intervention while the remaining patients entered a control, wait list condition. Working memory task-related activation patterns and context-dependent functional connectivity, as well as the change of these neural correlates as a function of training, were assessed. While both working memory processes activated an extended frontoparietal–cerebellar network, only the manipulation of items within working memory also recruited the anterior striatum. The intervention effect on the neural correlates was small, but decreased activation in areas relevant for working memory could be observed, with activation changes correlating with behavioural change. Moreover, training seemed to result in decreased functional connectivity when pure maintenance was required, and in a reorganization of functional connectivity when items had to be manipulated. In accordance with the neural efficacy hypothesis, training resulted in overall reduced activation and reorganized functional connectivity, with a differential effect on the different working memory processes under investigation. Now, larger trials including follow-up examinations are needed to further explore the long-term effects of such interventions on a neural level and to estimate the clinical relevance to potentially delay cognitive decline in cognitively healthy patients with Parkinson’s disease.

Working memory updating and binding training: Bayesian evidence supporting the absence of transfer.

As working memory (WM) predicts a wide range of other abilities, it has become a popular target for training interventions. However, its effectiveness to elicit generalized cognitive benefits is still under debate. Previous research yielded inconsistent findings and focused only little on the mechanisms underlying transfer effects. To disentangle training effects on WM capacity and efficiency, we evaluated near transfer to untrained, structurally different WM tasks and far transfer to closely related abilities (i.e., reasoning, processing speed, task switching, and inhibitory control) in addition to process-specific effects on 3 WM mechanisms (i.e., focus switching, removal of WM contents, and interference resolution). We randomly assigned 197 young adults to 1 of 2 experimental groups (updating or item-to-context binding) or to an active control group practicing visual search tasks. Before and after 5 weeks of adaptive training, performance was assessed measuring each of the cognitive processes and abilities of interest with 4 tasks covering verbal-numerical and visual-spatial materials. Despite the relatively large sample size, large practice effects in the trained tasks, and at least moderate correlations between WM training tasks and transfer measures, we found consistent evidence for the absence of any training-induced improvements across all ranges of transfer and mechanisms. Instead, additional analyses of error patterns and self-reported strategy use indicated that WM training encouraged the development of stimulus-specific expertise and use of paradigm-specific strategies. Thus, the results suggest that the WM training interventions examined here enhanced neither WM capacity nor the WM mechanisms assumed to underlie transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record

Working Memory and Reasoning Benefit from Different Modes of Large-scale Brain Dynamics in Healthy Older Adults.

Researchers have proposed that solving complex reasoning problems, a key indicator of fluid intelligence, involves the same cognitive processes as solving working memory tasks. This proposal is supported by an overlap of the functional brain activations associated with the two types of tasks and by high correlations between interindividual differences in performance. We replicated these findings in 53 older participants but also showed that solving reasoning and working memory problems benefits from different configurations of the functional connectome and that this dissimilarity increases with a higher difficulty load. Specifically, superior performance in a typical working memory paradigm ( n-back) was associated with upregulation of modularity (increased between-network segregation), whereas performance in the reasoning task was associated with effective downregulation of modularity. We also showed that working memory training promotes task-invariant increases in modularity. Because superior reasoning performance is associated with downregulation of modular dynamics, training may thus have fostered an inefficient way of solving the reasoning tasks. This could help explain why working memory training does little to promote complex reasoning performance. The study concludes that complex reasoning abilities cannot be reduced to working memory and suggests the need to reconsider the feasibility of using working memory training interventions to attempt to achieve effects that transfer to broader cognition.

Working memory training in older adults: Bayesian evidence supporting the absence of transfer.

The question of whether working memory training leads to generalized improvements in untrained cognitive abilities is a longstanding and heatedly debated one. Previous research provides mostly ambiguous evidence regarding the presence or absence of transfer effects in older adults. Thus, to draw decisive conclusions regarding the effectiveness of working memory training interventions, methodologically sound studies with larger sample sizes are needed. In this study, we investigated whether or not a computer-based working memory training intervention induced near and far transfer in a large sample of 142 healthy older adults (65 to 80 years). Therefore, we randomly assigned participants to either the experimental group, which completed 25 sessions of adaptive, process-based working memory training, or to the active, adaptive visual search control group. Bayesian linear mixed-effects models were used to estimate performance improvements on the level of abilities, using multiple indicator tasks for near (working memory) and far transfer (fluid intelligence, shifting, and inhibition). Our data provided consistent evidence supporting the absence of near transfer to untrained working memory tasks and the absence of far transfer effects to all of the assessed abilities. Our results suggest that working memory training is not an effective way to improve general cognitive functioning in old age. (PsycINFO Database Record

Do Individual Differences Predict Change in Cognitive Training Performance? A Latent Growth Curve Modeling Approach

Cognitive training interventions have become increasingly popular as a potential means to cost-efficiently stabilize or enhance cognitive functioning across the lifespan. Large training improvements have been consistently reported on the group level, with, however, large differences on the individual level. Identifying the factors contributing to these individual differences could allow for developing individually tailored interventions to boost training gains. In this study, we therefore examined a range of individual differences variables that had been discussed in the literature to potentially predict training performance. To estimate and predict individual differences in the training trajectories, we applied Latent Growth Curve models to existing data from three working memory training interventions with younger and older adults. However, we found that individual differences in demographic variables, real-world cognition, motivation, cognition-related beliefs, personality, leisure activities, and computer literacy and training experience were largely unrelated to change in training performance. Solely baseline cognitive performance was substantially related to change in training performance and particularly so in young adults, with individuals with higher baseline performance showing the largest gains. Thus, our results conform to magnification accounts of cognitive change.

Initial Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Computerized Working Memory Training in Pediatric Sickle Cell Disease

Introduction: Disease-related neurocognitive deficits are common in sickle cell disease (SCD), even in the absence of stroke. Working memory (WM) is among the domains most commonly affected, likely a result of the high frequency of disease-related cerebral insults localized to the prefrontal cortex. Computerized cognitive training programs have garnered support for their efficacy in improving working memory across multiple pediatric populations, but have not been thoroughly explored in SCD. We present initial findings from a randomized controlled trial of the feasibility and efficacy of a home-based, computerized WM training intervention (Cogmed) with children with SCD.Methods: Youth with SCD between the ages of 7 and 16 years old were recruited to complete a randomized (intervention or waitlist-control), dose-controlled, home-based computerized WM training program (Cogmed). After an initial neuropsychological assessment, participants with WM deficits were loaned an iPad on which they accessed Cogmed at home. Cogmedconsists of 12 increasingly challenging exercises that target skills involving visuo-spatial and verbal WM, practiced over 25 training sessions. At the end of the training period, participants completed a post-intervention neuropsychological assessment, including tests of auditory WM (Digit Span subtest, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fifth Edition [WISC-V]) and visuo-spatial WM (Picture Span subtest, WISC-V; and Block Design-Forward and Block Design-Backward subtests, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition [WISC-IV]). Subtest scores are represented using scaled scores (M = 10; SD = 2). Scores on WISC-V WM subtests were used to calculate a composite Working Memory Index (WMI), represented by a standard score (M = 100; SD = 15).Results: To date, 59 participants (M = 10.45, SD = 2.90; 53% female) have enrolled and completed a baseline neuropsychological assessment. Forty-nine percent (n = 29) exhibited WM deficits and were randomized to either begin Cogmed immediately (n = 14) or wait 5-8 weeks before beginning Cogmed (n = 15). Among those who have received the intervention and reached the end of their training (n = 24), 12 participants (50%) completed at least 10 sessions and 7 participants (29%) completed at least 20 sessions. The mean number of Cogmed sessions completed was 11.83 (SD = 7.97). As expected, participants in the waitlist condition did not exhibit improvements in WM, as demonstrated by stable performance on the WMI (t[8] = -1.520, p = .167), and on the Digit Span (t[9] = -0.449, p = .664), Picture Span (t[9] = -0.708, p = .497), Spatial Span-Forward (t[9] = 0.261, p = .802), and Spatial Span-Backward (t[7] = -0.261, p = .802) subtests. Participants who exhibited WM deficits at baseline and were given Cogmed exhibited reliable improvements in WMI (Baseline M = 89.79, SD = 12.36; Post-test M = 96.83, SD = 14.97), Digit Span (Baseline M = 7.62, SD = 2.24; Post-test M = 8.61, SD = 3.07), Picture Span (Baseline M = 8.93, SD = 2.87; Post-test M = 10.39, SD = 3.01), Block Design-Forward (Baseline M = 8.39, SD = 2.50; Post-test M = 9.06, SD = 3.35), and Block Design-Backward (Baseline M = 7.61, SD = 1.95; Post-test M = 9.39, SD = 2.62). Paired Samples t-tests conducted with participants who completed at least half of the Cogmed program (i.e., 10 sessions), revealed significant improvements on the WMI (t[7] = -3.361, p = .012), and on the Digit Span (t[7] = -3.175, p = .016), Spatial Span-Forward (t[7] = -2.448, p = .044), and Spatial Span-Backward (t[7] = -4.233, p = .004) subtests. Partial correlations controlling for respective baseline scores, indicated that the number of Cogmed sessions completed was positively correlated with post-test scores on the WMI (r = .568, p = .017), and on the Digit Span (r = .623, p = .008), Spatial Span-Forward (r = .518, p = .033), and Spatial Span-Backward (r = .612, p = .009) subtests.Conclusions: Children with SCD exhibit significant neurocognitive deficits, particularly in WM. Initial results suggest that a home-based, computerized WM training program leads to significant improvements in WM. A dose-effect was observed, as participants who completed more Cogmed sessions evidenced the greatest improvements in WM. Home-based cognitive training programs may ameliorate SCD-related WM deficits but innovative approaches to motivating and supporting patients as they complete home-based interventions are needed to enhance adherence. DisclosuresNo relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

How effective are working memory training interventions at improving maths in schools: a study into the efficacy of working memory training in children aged 9 and 10 in a junior school?

ABSTRACTThis study evaluates the validity of claims that Working Memory (WM) training is an effective and legitimate school-based maths intervention. By analysing the current developments in WM in the fields of neurology and cognitive psychology, this study seeks to analyse their relevance to the classroom. This study analyses memory profiles of children and maths performance previous to, and after a 3 week school-based, teacher led, intervention programme. Results indicate that although WM improved, it also improved for the control group, who did not undergo training. No significant far-transfer to maths results were demonstrated during the study.

Enhancing Working Memory Training with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation.

Working memory (WM) is a fundamental cognitive ability that supports complex thought but is limited in capacity. Thus, WM training interventions have become very popular as a means of potentially improving WM-related skills. Another promising intervention that has gained increasing traction in recent years is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a noninvasive form of brain stimulation that can modulate cortical excitability and temporarily increase brain plasticity. As such, it has the potential to boost learning and enhance performance on cognitive tasks. This study assessed the efficacy of tDCS to supplement WM training. Sixty-two participants were randomized to receive either right prefrontal, left prefrontal, or sham stimulation with concurrent visuospatial WM training over the course of seven training sessions. Results showed that tDCS enhanced training performance, which was strikingly preserved several months after training completion. Furthermore, we observed stronger effects when tDCS was spaced over a weekend break relative to consecutive daily training, and we also demonstrated selective transfer in the right prefrontal group to nontrained tasks of visual and spatial WM. These findings shed light on how tDCS may be leveraged as a tool to enhance performance on WM-intensive learning tasks.

Editorial: Effects of Game and Game-Like Training on Neurocognitive Plasticity.

Editorial: Effects of Game and Game-Like Training on Neurocognitive Plasticity.

Age-specific differences of dual n-back training

Age-related decline in executive functions can be decisive in performing everyday tasks autonomously. Working memory (WM) is closely related to executive functions, and training of WM has yielded evidence toward cognitive plasticity in older adults. The training effects often transfer to untrained tasks and functions. These effects have mostly been shown in processes such as WM and attention, whereas studies investigating transfer to executive functions have been scarce. We trained older adults aged 57–73 years in a WM training task that was reported to be effective in producing transfer in young adults. The training intervention consisted of a dual n-back task including independently processed auditory and visual n-back tasks. We investigated transfer to tasks engaging executive functions, and compared the effects in older adults to those reported in young adults. We found that both training groups improved in the training task. Although the training effect in older adults was smaller than the training effect in young adults, the older adults still showed a notable improvement so that after training they performed on the same level as young adults without training. The older adults also showed transfer to an untrained WM updating task, a result that was in accordance with the findings in young adults; other transfer effects in older adults were lacking. We conclude that although transfer effects were scarce, the present study provides encouraging evidence toward the possibilities to compensate for age-related decline in executive functions by a WM training intervention.

Preventing academic difficulties in preterm children: a randomised controlled trial of an adaptive working memory training intervention – IMPRINT study

BackgroundVery preterm children exhibit difficulties in working memory, a key cognitive ability vital to learning information and the development of academic skills. Previous research suggests that an adaptive working memory training intervention (Cogmed) may improve working memory and other cognitive and behavioural domains, although further randomised controlled trials employing long-term outcomes are needed, and with populations at risk for working memory deficits, such as children born preterm.In a cohort of extremely preterm (<28 weeks’ gestation)/extremely low birthweight (<1000 g) 7-year-olds, we will assess the effectiveness of Cogmed in improving academic functioning 2 years’ post-intervention. Secondary objectives are to assess the effectiveness of Cogmed in improving working memory and attention 2 weeks’, 12 months’ and 24 months’ post-intervention, and to investigate training related neuroplasticity in working memory neural networks 2 weeks’ post-intervention.Methods/DesignThis double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised controlled trial aims to recruit 126 extremely preterm/extremely low birthweight 7-year-old children. Children attending mainstream school without major intellectual, sensory or physical impairments will be eligible. Participating children will undergo an extensive baseline cognitive assessment before being randomised to either an adaptive or placebo (non-adaptive) version of Cogmed. Cogmed is a computerised working memory training program consisting of 25 sessions completed over a 5 to 7 week period. Each training session takes approximately 35 minutes and will be completed in the child’s home. Structural, diffusion and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, which is optional for participants, will be completed prior to and 2 weeks following the training period. Follow-up assessments focusing on academic skills (primary outcome), working memory and attention (secondary outcomes) will be conducted at 2 weeks’, 12 months’ and 24 months’ post-intervention.DiscussionTo our knowledge, this study will be the first randomised controlled trial to (a) assess the effectiveness of Cogmed in school-aged extremely preterm/extremely low birthweight children, while incorporating advanced imaging techniques to investigate neural changes associated with adaptive working memory training, and (b) employ long-term follow-up to assess the potential benefit of improved working memory on academic functioning. If effective, Cogmed would serve as a valuable, available intervention for improving developmental outcomes for this population.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12612000124831.

Testing for Near and Far Transfer Effects with a Short, Face‐to‐Face Adaptive Working Memory Training Intervention in Typical Children

A relatively quick, face‐to‐face, adaptive working memory training intervention was assessed in 5‐ to 8‐year‐old typically developing children, randomly allocated to a 6‐week intervention condition, or an active control condition. All children received 18 sessions of 10 minutes, three times/week for 6 weeks. Assessments of six working memory skills, word reading and mathematics were administered at pre‐test, post‐test and 6‐month follow‐up. Additional measures of word reading, mathematics, spelling and reading comprehension were given at a 12‐month follow‐up. At post‐test, the trained group showed significantly larger gains than the control group on the two trained executive‐loaded working memory tasks (Listening Recall and Odd One Out Span) and on two untrained working memory tasks (Word Recall and Counting Recall). These ‘near transfer’ effects were still apparent at 6‐month follow‐up. ‘Far transfer’ effects were less evident: there was no difference between the groups in their gains on single word reading and mathematics over 12 months, and spelling skills did not differ at 12‐month follow‐up. However, the trained group showed significantly higher reading comprehension scores than the control group at 12‐month follow‐up. Thus, improving the ability to divide attention between processing and storage may have had specific benefits for reading comprehension. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.