Working Memory Capacity Test Research Articles

Influence of Working Memory Capacity on English Language Learning of High School Students School

In recent years, the relationship between working memory and second language acquisition has been a hot topic in the field of second language acquisition. The impact of second language learners’ working memory capacity on their second language acquisition is inconclusive. Researchers have called for further investigation into the role of working memory in second language development when reviewing literature on working memory in second language acquisition. called for further investigation into the role of working memory in second language development when reviewing literature on working memory in second language contexts and language contexts. Therefore, this study aims to explore whether and how working memory capacity affects overall English proficiency. The research question is: what is the correlation between high school students' working memory capacity and their English grades? This study used empirical research methods and randomly selected 37 high school students from a school in Dujiangyan, Chengdu as participants. empirical research methods and randomly selected 37 high school students from a school in Dujiangyan, Chengdu as participants. Data sources included Data sources included working memory capacity tests and English proficiency tests, both of which were conducted in the students’ classrooms. Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis were performed using SPSS 26.0 statistical analysis software. The study shows that there is a significant correlation between working memory capacity and English proficiency test scores. The correlation between The correlation between working memory and English proficiency test scores suggests that individual differences in working memory capacity can affect important cognitive activities such as listening, reading comprehension, reasoning, writing, and problem-solving. The correlation between working memory and English proficiency test scores suggests that individual differences in working memory capacity can affect important cognitive activities such as listening, reading comprehension, reasoning, writing, and problem-solving.

Does Dyadic Practice Interfere with the Type of Motor Learning Promoted by Analogy Instructions?

We investigated whether allowing individuals to exchange verbal information during dyadic practice changed the effect of analogy instructions intended to strengthen explicit motor learning by an implicit means. Forty-three right-handed college students performed golf putting, aiming at a target three meters away. Participants were assigned to one of two groups: Dyadic Practice Analogy Instruction or Individual Practice Analogy Instruction. Participants in the Dyadic Practice group were allowed to communicate with one another about the task during their practice. Before practice, participants performed a working memory capacity test. Both groups performed 180 trials of golf distributed across three days. On each day, there were four blocks of 15 trials. On the third day, participants reported the explicit rules they used to learn the task and they completed the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. On the fourth day, they took three learning tests: retention, dual-task transfer, and social pressure transfer tests. Results of the retention test indicated that both groups learned the task comparably. Similarly, there were no significant group differences between the participants' number of explicit rules learned and their motivation levels on either of the transfer tests. Finally, only the participants in the Dyadic Practice Analogy Group showed a significant correlation between their performance on the dual-task transfer test and their working memory capacity. Overall, we found that dyadic practice did not interfere with the implicit type of motor learning promoted by analogy instruction (i.e., implicit learning).

Investigating the Structural Relationships between Cognitive and Metacognitive Dimensions with Physical Performance among Children

Introduction: The relationship between cognitive and metacognitive dimensions and children's performance in various areas, such as academic performance, has been extensively studied. However, the link between cognitive and metacognitive dimensions and children's physical performance has been largely overlooked. Aim: The aim of the current research was to examine the structural relationships between cognitive and metacognitive dimensions with physical performance among children. Method: This descriptive-correlational study utilized structural equation modeling. The study population comprised all male children in Tehran in 2021 who were enrolled in a football school. A sample of 129 children was selected through convenience sampling. Sustained attention was assessed using the Rapid Visual Information Processing Test (2010), working memory was evaluated with the Working Memory Capacity Test (1980), metacognitive dimensions (cognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation) were measured using the Schraw and Dennison Metacognitive Awareness Skills Questionnaire (1994), and physical performance was assessed with the short form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test (BOT-2). Data analysis was conducted using Pearson correlation coefficients and structural equations in SPSS version 20. Results: The structural equations revealed that cognitive dimensions (attention and working memory) significantly influenced physical performance (gross and fine motor skills) (P<0.05). Moreover, there was a significant association between metacognitive dimensions (cognitive knowledge and cognitive regulation) and physical performance (gross and fine motor skills) (P<0.05). Conclusion: The findings suggest that cognitive and metacognitive dimensions play a crucial role in children's physical performance. Therefore, implementing interventions and strategies to enhance cognitive functions and metacognitive awareness in children could greatly improve their physical performance

The Olfactory Working Memory Capacity Paradigm.

Working memory capacity (WMC), a crucial component of working memory (WM), has consistently drawn the attention of researchers. Exploring the underlying neurobiological mechanisms behind it is currently a prominent focus in the field of neuroscience. Previously, we developed a novel behavioral paradigm for rodents called the olfactory working memory capacity (OWMC) paradigm, which serves as an effective tool for quantifying the WMC of rodents. The OWMC task comprises five phases: context adaptation, digging training, rule-learning for nonmatching to a single sample odor (NMSS), rule-learning for nonmatching to multiple sample odors (NMMS), and capacity testing. In the first phase, mice are handled to reduce stress and acclimate to the training cage. The second phase involves training mice to dig in a bowl of unscented sawdust to locate a piece of cheese. In the third phase, mice are trained to locate the cheese pellet in a bowl with a noveal odor. The fourth phase requires mice to distinguish the novel odor among multiple scented bowls to locate the cheese pellet. Finally, in the fifth phase, mice undergo several WMC tests until they achieve a stable level of performance. In this protocol paper, we will provide detailed instructions on how to implement the behavioral paradigm. © 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Context adaptation Basic Protocol 2: Digging training Basic Protocol 3: Rule-learning for NMSS Basic Protocol 4: Rule-learning for NMMS Basic Protocol 5: Capacity testing.

The Impact of Filipina Domestic Workers on Hong Kong Primary School Children’s L2 English Spoken CAF and Reading Accuracy and Fluency

Abstract This study investigates the impact of Filipina domestic workers (FilDWs), a marginalized group in Hong Kong (HK), on HK children’s language development. It focusses on FilDWs’ influence on the second language (L2) English of bilingual HK primary school children attending an English Medium of Instruction school. The elements investigated are L2 English spoken complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF), and reading accuracy and fluency. Participants comprise 34 children (17 boys and 17 girls, mean age 8;11) from homes with FilDWs and 30 (15 boys and 15 girls, mean age 8;11) from homes with no FilDW. Participants completed an English reading and speaking task, and an English working memory capacity (WMC) test. Participants from households with FilDWs scored significantly higher on all aspects of both English language measures, while no significant differences for WMC were observed. These suggest that FilDWs exert a positive impact on children’s L2 English proficiency, placing them in a different position to the low status they are usually ascribed. These findings have implications for decolonizing and decentring language learning and teaching.

Analysis of Depression and Working Memory Effectiveness of 'Active Health Mini Program'

Parents of special children will encounter many difficulties and pressures in the process of raising special children, which will cause discomfort in mental health, such as depression. Depression is usually accompanied by cognitive decline, and its working memory will be damaged. The existing tools are cumbersome for the test of depression and working memory capacity. For general hospitals, rapid and convenient diagnosis of patients ' depression and working memory is of great practical significance for doctors to make treatment plans. Therefore, this experiment first tested the applicability of Zung self rating depression scale (SDS) in parents of special children, and simplified the SDS on this basis. Secondly, the effectiveness of depression and working memory tasks in active health mini-programs will be investigated. In this experiment, 125 parents were recruited. (1) The internal consistency coefficient of SDS was 0.83; (2) Split-half reliability, Spearman-Brown correction coefficient was 0.72; (3) Factor analysis, According to the Ksiser method, five factors were obtained by the criterion of eigenvalue ≥ 1, the characteristic roots were 5.38, 3.07, 1.72, 1.12 and 1.01, respectively, which explained 22.59%, 15.82%, 8.05%, 7.83% and 7.18% of the variation values, and the cumulative contribution rate was 61.47%, Four factors were obtained by reclassifying the factors with too few variables; (4) There was a significant positive correlation between the small program depression score and the SDS, r = 0.42, P < 0.001; (5) There was a significant positive correlation between small program working memory name and memory color, r = 0.25, P < 0.05; (6) There was a significant positive correlation between the correct number of small program memory items and the position 1 of Bcak corsi knock task (BCT), r = 0.49, P < 0.01; (7) There was a significant negative correlation between the correct number of small program memory items and the position 2 of BCT, r = -0.56, P < 0.01; (8) There was a significant positive correlation between the two memory positions of BCT, r = -0.81, P < 0.01. The results showed that although it did not fully reflect the patient's overall depression or working memory status, the self-assessment of depression and working memory in the small program can reflect the patient's depression and cognitive impairment. It is an effective and simple tool.

Bilingual Hong Kong primary school children’s vocabulary: The impact of Filipina domestic workers

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of Filipina domestic workers (FilDWs) on bilingual Hong Kong children’s language development. More specifically, it looked at FilDWs’ influence on the L1 Cantonese-receptive vocabulary and word reading, and the L2-English receptive vocabulary of bilingual Hong Kong primary school children attending an English Medium of Instruction (EMI) school. Methodology: A total of 64 children aged 8–9 participated in the main study. Thirty-four children from homes with FilDWs and 30 from homes with no FilDW took receptive vocabulary tests in Cantonese and English, a Cantonese word reading test, and a working memory capacity (WMC) test. Data and analyses: Test scores of both participating groups were compared and analyzed with independent t-tests. The content validity index was employed to validate the receptive vocabulary tests. Findings: Participants from households with FilDWs scored significantly higher on the English receptive vocabulary test, while no significant differences between the two groups were found on either the Cantonese tests or the WMC test. The results suggest that FilDWs exert a positive impact on the L2-English receptive vocabulary, without a negative impact on L1 Cantonese-receptive vocabulary or word reading, of bilingual Hong Kong primary school children from EMI schools. Originality: This study’s Socioeconomic-status (SES)-matched groups (as measured via level of maternal education) and comparable levels of school-based language exposure clearly highlight the role of home language, especially L2 English, exposure. It is also the first study investigating the impact of FilDWs on children’s language acquisition that employed a WMC test. Implications: The study makes a practical contribution by informing Hong Kong parents of bilingual children attending EMI schools that they can expect their children’s English vocabulary to benefit via the employment of a FilDW, without a trade-off effect on L1-Cantonese.

On the Relation between the Development of Working Memory Updating and Working Memory Capacity in Preschoolers.

This study aims at investigating the relationship between working memory updating and working memory capacity in preschool children. A sample of 176 preschoolers (36–74 months) was administered a working memory updating task (Magic House) along with three working memory capacity tests that specifically measure their core attentional component (M capacity, as defined in the theory of constructive operators): Backward Word Span, Mr. Cucumber, and Direction Following Task. Correlational analyses and cross-classification prediction analyses were performed. Updating and capacity were significantly correlated, although the correlations were not high when age was partialled out. Capacity increased with age, and mediated the relation between age and updating. More importantly, cross-classification prediction analysis revealed that high updating scores with low M capacity, and low updating scores with relatively high M capacity, are possible events; the only combination ruled out was a low updating score with precocious development of M capacity. These facts demonstrate that updating skills in preschoolers depends on M capacity but does not coincide with it. Therefore, in cognitive developmental theories, the constructs of working memory updating and capacity should be distinguished, and on practical grounds, different tests should be used to measure them.

Decision-making, cognitive functions, impulsivity, and media multitasking expectancies in high versus low media multitaskers

In several studies, individuals who reported to frequently multitask with different media displayed reduced cognitive performance, for example in fluid intelligence and executive functioning. These cognitive functions are relevant for making advantageous decisions under both objective risk (requiring reflection and strategical planning) and ambiguous risk (requiring learning from feedback). Thus, compared to low media multitaskers (LMMs), high media multitaskers (HMMs) may perform worse in both types of decision situations. The current study investigated HMMs and LMMs in a laboratory setting with the Game of Dice Task (GDT; objective risk), the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; ambiguous risk), various tests quantifying cognitive functions (logical reasoning, working memory, information processing, general executive functions), and self-report measures of impulsivity, media multitasking expectancies, and problematic Internet use. From 182 participants, 25 HMMs and 19 LMMs were identified using the Media Multitasking Index. Results show that HMMs compared to LMMs performed weaker on the IGT but not on the GDT. Furthermore, HMMs had slightly decreased performance in tests of logical reasoning and working memory capacity. HMMs tended to increased information processing speed but this difference was not significant. Furthermore, HMMs have more positive expectancies regarding media multitasking and reported higher tendencies toward problematic Internet use. HMMs and LMMs did not differ significantly with respect to impulsivity and executive functions. The results give a first hint that HMMs may have difficulties in decision-making under ambiguous but not under objective risk. HMMs may be more prone to errors in tasks that require feedback processing. However, HMMs appear not to be impaired in aspects of long-term strategic decision-making.

Intelligence test items varying in capacity demands cannot be used to test the causality of working memory capacity for fluid intelligence

There is a strong relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory capacity (WMC). Yet, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship remain elusive. The capacity hypothesis states that this relationship is due to limitations in the amount of information that can be stored and held active in working memory. Previous research aimed at testing the capacity hypothesis assumed that it implies stronger relationships of intelligence test performance with WMC for test items with higher capacity demands. The present article addresses this assumption through simulations of three theoretical models implementing the capacity hypothesis while systematically varying different psychometric variables. The results show that almost any relation between the capacity demands of items and their correlation with WMC can be obtained. Therefore, the assumption made by previous studies does not hold: The capacity hypothesis does not imply stronger correlations of WMC and intelligence test items with higher capacity demands. Items varying in capacity demands cannot be used to test the causality of WMC (or any other latent variable) for fluid intelligence.

Advancing the Understanding of the Factor Structure of Executive Functioning.

There has been considerable debate and interest regarding the factor structure of executive functioning (EF). Therefore, the aim of the current study was to delve into this issue differently, by investigating EF and other cognitive constructs, such as working memory capacity (WMC), relational integration, and divided attention, which may contribute to EF. Here, we examined whether it is possible to provide evidence for a definite model of EF containing the components of updating, shifting, and inhibition. For this purpose, 202 young adults completed a battery of EF, three WMC tests, three relational integration tests, and two divided attention tests. A confirmatory factor analysis on all the cognitive abilities produced a five-factor structure, which included one factor predominately containing shifting tasks, the next factor containing two updating tasks, the third one predominately representing WMC, the fourth factor consisting of relational integration and antisaccade tasks, and finally, the last factor consisting of the divided attention and stop signal tasks. Lastly, a subsequent hierarchical model supported a higher-order factor, thereby representing general cognitive ability.

CAPACIDADE DA MEMÓRIA DE TRABALHO, PROFICIÊNCIA LEITORA, E PROCESSAMENTO DE INFORMAÇÕES VERBAIS E PICTORIAIS NA LEITURA EM INGLÊS COMO LÍNGUA ESTRANGEIRA

RESUMO Este estudo investiga relações entre capacidade da memória de trabalho (CMT), proficiência leitora e processamento de informações verbais e pictoriais na leitura em inglês como língua estrangeira (ILE). A amostra investigada foi composta por sessenta estudantes brasileiros de ensino médio entre 15-17 anos (M =16.3, SD. = 64). Os instrumentos de coleta de dados incluíram: um questionário de experiências prévias, um teste de proficiência leitora em ILE, um teste de CMT, um teste de compreensão leitora, e um questionário retrospectivo. As análises indicaram uma correlação positiva entre as variáveis independentes (i.e., proficiência leitora em ILE e CMT), e associações significativas entre cada uma dessas variáveis com a variável dependente (i.e., compreensão leitora). Os resultados indicaram que: (1) limitações da CMT podem restringir o processamento de textos expositivos não ilustrados; (2) limitações em proficiência em ILE tendem a comprometer a eficiência do processamento de informações pictoriais; (3) limitações da CMT no processamento de informações pictoriais parecem ser compensadas pela ativação de informações do conhecimento prévio.

The relationship between working memory capacity and temporal and dichotic auditory processing in teachers

Background and Aim: Because speech percep­tion is disturbed in people who are exposed to noise, this study aimed to investigate the effect of work environment noise on working memory capacity, temporal, and dichotic auditory proce­ssing and relationship between them in elemen­tary school teachers. Methods: Fifty-six female aged 30−50 years were enrolled in our study case and control groups. A total of 28 teachers with normal hearing and poor speech perception in noise were in the case group, and 28 women were controls with normal hearing and good scores in speech perception in noise who did not work in a noisy environment. Working memory tests, dichotic digit test (DDT) and gap-detection test (GDT) were performed for both groups. The mean score of each test was obtained from the two groups and the results were analyzed. Results: Comparison of means between the two groups in DDT, GDT, and working memory capacity test showed that the scores of the case group were significantly lower than those in the control group (p &lt; 0.05). There was no correla­tion between working memory capacity test, DDT, and GDT scores. (p &gt; 0.05, r &lt; 0.1). Conclusion: Noise exposure in the work envi­ronment causes weakness in temporal and dich­otic auditory processing, and working memory capacity. But there was no correlation between working memory capacity and auditory proce­ssing. The findings of this study show the eff­ects of noise exposure on speech perception and the need to protect hearing from noise.

Cognitive Load Theory, Resource Depletion and the Delayed Testing Effect

The testing effect occurs when students, given information to learn and then practice during a test, perform better on a subsequent content post-test than students who restudy the information as a substitute for the practice test. The effect is often weaker or reversed if immediate rather than delayed post-tests are used. The weakening may be due to differential working memory resource depletion on immediate post-tests with resource recovery due to rest following a delayed post-test. In three experiments, we compared an immediate post-test with a 1-week delayed post-test. Experiment 1 required the students to construct a puzzle poem and found working memory resource depletion occurred immediately after learning compared to a delay. Experiment 2 using text-based material tapping lower element interactivity information and experiment 3, again using a puzzle poem, compared study-only with the study and test groups. A disordinal interaction was obtained in both experiments with the study-only groups superior to the study–test groups on immediate content post-tests and reverse results on delayed tests. Working memory capacity tests indicated a non-significant increase in capacity after a delay compared to immediately after learning with medium size effects, but in experiment 2, there were no working memory differences between the study-only and the study and test groups. Experiment 3 increased element interactivity and found an increased memory capacity for the study-only group compared to the study and test group with the immediate test contributing more of the difference than the delayed test. It was concluded that increased working memory depletion immediately following learning with a test contributes to the failure to obtain a testing effect using immediate tests.

Explicit and implicit instruction of refusal strategies: Does working memory capacity play a role?

This study investigated the differential effects of implicit and explicit instruction of refusal strategies in English and whether and how the impacts of instruction methods interact with learners’ working memory capacity (WMC). 78 learners of English were assigned to three groups (explicit, implicit, and control). Implicit instruction was operationalized through input enhancement and provision of recast. In the explicit instruction group, participants received description and exemplification of refusal strategies and were provided with explicit corrective feedback. Prior to the treatment, all participants took WMC test, Discourse Completion Test (DCT) and completed a pragmatics comprehension questionnaire (CQ). Results revealed that explicit instruction was more effective than implicit instruction for both production and comprehension of refusals and that both implicit and explicit groups maintained the improvement in the delayed post-test administered two months later. In addition, whilst WMC scores were positively and strongly correlated with gains in the immediate and delayed post-test for both DCT and CQ in the implicit group, no meaningful relationship was found for explicit and control groups. The unique feature of this research is demonstrating that explicit instruction of refusal strategies equalizes learning opportunities for all learners with differential levels of WMC.

Retest effects in working memory capacity tests: A meta-analysis.

The repeated administration of working memory capacity tests is common in clinical and research settings. For cognitive ability tests and different neuropsychological tests, meta-analyses have shown that they are prone to retest effects, which have to be accounted for when interpreting retest scores. Using a multilevel approach, this meta-analysis aims at showing the reproducibility of retest effects in working memory capacity tests for up to seven test administrations, and examines the impact of the length of the test-retest interval, test modality, equivalence of test forms and participant age on the size of retest effects. Furthermore, it is assessed whether the size of retest effects depends on the test paradigm. An extensive literature search revealed 234 effect sizes from 95 samples and 68 studies, in which healthy participants between 12 and 70 years repeatedly performed a working memory capacity test. Results yield a weighted average of g = 0.28 for retest effects from the first to the second test administration, and a significant increase in effect sizes was observed up to the fourth test administration. The length of the test-retest interval and publication year were found to moderate the size of retest effects. Retest effects differed between the paradigms of working memory capacity tests. These findings call for the development and use of appropriate experimental or statistical methods to address retest effects in working memory capacity tests.

Tradução de teste de capacidade de memória de trabalho do inglês para o português brasileiro

O objetivo deste estudo foi a tradução e a adaptação para o contexto brasileiro de um teste de capacidade de Memória de Trabalho (MT) (WATERS e CAPLAN, 1996a). Nossa motivação é a existência de apenas uma medida de MT em português, cujo funcionamento difere do teste em questão. A tradução foi realizada seguindo critérios rígidos de escolha de palavras, número de sílabas, frequência de uso e número de palavras por frase, buscando manter o sentido original das frases. As diferenças entre a medida de MT disponível e a traduzida e suas respectivas vantagens e desvantagens foram explicitadas. Ainda cabem estudos para a validação do teste de capacidade de MT traduzido.

A Behavioral Experimental Study on Verbal Working Memory Capacity Differences Induced by Positive and Negative Emotions

The purpose of this study is: Firstly, to explore the influences of different emotion states on verbal working memory capacity by experiment. Secondly, to put forward advices for classroom education and student learning basing on the experiment results, so as to improve the efficiencies of students in learning and teachers in teaching. This study experimentally investigated the working memory capacity differences of 90 college students under positive, negative, and neutral emotion states based on two parts: emotional arousal and verbal working memory capacity test. Firstly, the positive, neutral, and negative emotions of the subjects were aroused by watching three videos. Then operation-word span test was performed on the subjects using a program compiled by Eprime2.0 to measure the verbal working memory span of the subjects. In accordance with the number of words recalled by the subjects, the verbal working memory capacities of the subjects were assessed. The experimental results suggested that: the subjects in emotion state of joy presented significantly higher verbal working memory span than those in calmness; the subjects in emotion state of calmness showed significantly higher verbal working memory span than those in sadness; the subjects in emotion state of joy showed significantly higher verbal working memory span than those in sadness. The innovation of this research is mainly reflected in its research direction, namely, a specific aspect of working memory.

Working Memory Capacity and Surgical Performance While Exposed to Mild Hypoxic Hypoxemia.

Medical Emergency Response Team (MERT) helicopters fly at altitudes of 3000 m in Afghanistan (9843 ft). Civilian hospitals and disaster-relief surgical teams may have to operate at such altitudes or even higher. Mild hypoxia has been seen to affect the performance of novel tasks at flight levels as low as 5000 ft. Aeromedical teams frequently work in unpressurized environments; it is important to understand the implications of this mild hypoxia and investigate whether supplementary oxygen systems are required for some or all of the team members. Ten UK orthopedic surgeons were recruited and in a double blind randomized experimental protocol, were acutely exposed for 45 min to normobaric hypoxia [fraction of inspired oxygen (FIo2) ∼14.1%, equivalent to 3000 m (10,000 ft)] or normobaric normoxia (sea-level). Basic physiological parameters were recorded. Subjects completed validated tests of verbal working memory capacity (VWMC) and also applied an orthopedic external fixator (Hoffmann® 3, Stryker, UK) to a plastic tibia under test conditions. Significant hypoxia was induced with the reduction of FIo2 to ∼14.1% (Spo2 87% vs. 98%). No effect of hypoxia on VWMC was observed. The pin-divergence score (a measure of frame asymmetry) was significantly greater in hypoxic conditions (4.6 mm) compared to sea level (3.0 mm); there was no significant difference in the penetrance depth (16.9 vs. 17.2 mm). One hypoxic frame would have failed early. We believe that surgery at an altitude of 3000 m, when unacclimated individuals are acutely exposed to atmospheric hypoxia for 45 min, can likely take place without supplemental oxygen use but further work is required.Parker PJ, Manley AJ, Shand R, O'Hara JP, Mellor A. Working memory capacity and surgical performance while exposed to mild hypoxic hypoxemia. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2017; 88(10):918-923.

Extending Cognitive Load Theory to Incorporate Working Memory Resource Depletion: Evidence from the Spacing Effect

Depletion of limited working memory resources may occur following extensive mental effort resulting in decreased performance compared to conditions requiring less extensive mental effort. This “depletion effect” can be incorporated into cognitive load theory that is concerned with using the properties of human cognitive architecture, especially working memory, when designing instruction. Two experiments were carried out on the spacing effect that occurs when learning that is spaced by temporal gaps between learning episodes is superior to identical, massed learning with no gaps between learning episodes. Using primary school students learning mathematics, it was found that students obtained lower scores on a working memory capacity test (Experiments 1 and 2) and higher ratings of cognitive load (Experiment 2) after massed than after spaced practice. The reduction in working memory capacity may be attributed to working memory resource depletion following the relatively prolonged mental effort associated with massed compared to spaced practice. An expansion of cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion along with instructional design implications, including the spacing effect, is discussed.