Word Reading Scores Research Articles

Pediatric cognitive reserve moderates the effect of brain structure in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence for an optimized residual approach.

To validate a residual-based cognitive reserve (CR) index optimized for a pediatric sample with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants were N = 115 children aged 9.5-13 years at baseline (Mage = 10.48 years, SDage = 0.61), and n = 43 (37.4%) met criteria for ADHD. Elastic-net regularized linear regression was used to generate baseline and longitudinal CR indices by maximally residualizing variance in fluid intelligence for demographics and brain structure. Academic and diagnostic outcomes were regressed onto CR indices, and interactions with brain integrity were assessed. Baseline CR predicted baseline math computation (estimate = 0.10, SE = 0.02, p < .001), while change in CR predicted change in word reading ability (estimate = 0.08, SE = 0.02, p < .001). Further, when grey matter volume tended to be lower, higher CR was associated with higher word reading score (estimate = -0.05, SE = 0.02, p = .019) and lower ADHD symptom severity (estimate = 0.04, SE = 0.02, p = .047) compared to lower CR, at baseline. Similarly, when longitudinal change in white matter hypointensity volume tended to be greater, higher change in CR resulted in more favorable word reading trajectory (estimate = 0.03, SE = 0.02, p = .048). A data-driven residual approach to operationalizing pediatric CR shows better evidence of construct validity over previous methods, with our index showing a novel ability to moderate the deleterious effects of lower grey matter on outcomes in ADHD. This approach may benefit future research aiming to study the early development of CR. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Alzheimer disease-related biomarkers and cancer-related cognitive decline: the Thinking and Living with Cancer study.

We evaluated whether plasma Alzheimer disease (AD)-related biomarkers were associated with cancer-related cognitive decline among older breast cancer survivors. We included survivors aged 60-90 years with primary stage 0-III breast cancers (n = 236) and frequency-matched noncancer control paricipant (n = 154) who passed a cognitive screen and had banked plasma specimens. Participants were assessed at baseline (presystemic therapy) and annually for up to 60 months. Cognition was measured using tests of attention, processing speed, and executive function and learning and memory; perceived cognition was measured by the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Cognitive Function v3 Perceived Cognitive Impairments. Baseline plasma neurofilament light, glial fibrillary acidic protein, β-amyloid 42 and 40 and phosphorylated tau 181 were assayed using single molecule arrays. Mixed models tested associations between cognition and baseline AD biomarkers, time, group (survivor vs control participant), and their 2- and 3-way interactions, controlling for age, race, Wide Range 4 Achievement Test Word Reading score, comorbidity, and body mass index; 2-sided P values of .05 were considered statistically significant. There were no group differences in baseline AD-related biomarkers except survivors had higher baseline neurofilament light levels than control participants (P = .013). Survivors had lower adjusted longitudinal attention, processing speed, and executive function than control participants starting from baseline and continuing over time (P ≤ .002). However, baseline AD-related biomarker levels were not independently associated with adjusted cognition over time, except control participants had lower attention, processing speed, and executive function scores with higher glial fibrillary acidic protein levels (P = .008). The results do not support a relationship between baseline AD-related biomarkers and cancer-related cognitive decline. Further investigation is warranted to confirm the findings, test effects of longitudinal changes in AD-related biomarkers, and examine other mechanisms and factors affecting cognition presystemic therapy.

The Role of Verbal Fluency as a Variable in Reading and Comprehension Skills in Bengali.

The study explored the role of verbal fluency in determining reading and comprehension skills in Bengali among 10-year old typically developing Bengali children. Robust correlations were found between semantic fluency and word reading (0.63) as well as semantic fluency and comprehension (0.70). Good correlation was found between letter fluency and comprehension (0.49), and, word reading and comprehension (0.62). The findings suggest that good word storing capacity and executive functions led to enhanced automaticity of retrieval and verbal fluency, which together with improved orthographic and phonological processing led to good word reading scores, contributing to lesser cognitive load thereby easing out the complex text comprehension task. Transcending narrow empirical base of reading theories derived from Western writing typologies delimited to orthographic depth and psycholinguistic grain size, the study contends that verbal fluency is another interesting variable determining the reading and comprehension skills in Bengali along with visuo-spatial complexity and complex phonology-orthography inconsistencies.

Impact of Parental Involvement on Students' Reading Proficiency

This study aimed to determine the extent of parental involvement in the development of reading proficiency among Grade 7 students. Utilizing a descriptive-correlational research design, the study employed systematic sampling to identify 280 parents of Grade 7 students from 11 secondary public schools in the Sibulan 1 and 2 Districts, Division of Negros Oriental. Data collection was facilitated through the Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (Phil IRI) Assessment Tool and a validated questionnaire. Statistical analyses included percent, weighted mean, mean, and multiple regression analysis. The findings indicated that parental involvement in parenting was "high," while involvement in communicating, volunteering, learning at home, and decision-making was "somewhat high." The results showed that students' word reading scores were at the "instructional" level, whereas their comprehension scores were at the "frustration" level. Additionally, the study identified parenting as the only significant predictor of students' word reading and comprehension scores. Furthermore, student characteristics such as sex, age, and school location significantly predicted word reading scores, with female, younger, and urban-based students performing better. These findings underscore the critical role of parental involvement, particularly in parenting, in enhancing students' reading proficiency. The study suggests that targeted interventions to increase parental engagement in various forms could potentially improve reading outcomes for Grade 7 students.

Reading Interest and Proficiency of Grade 7 Learners

This descriptive-correlational study aimed to assess the reading interest and proficiency of 170 randomly selected Grade 7 learners. It utilized two sets of research instruments—the Learner’s Reading Interest Survey (RIS) and the Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (PHIL-IRI). Specifically, a self-made questionnaire was used to assess the respondents’ reading interest, while the PHIL-IRI assessment tool was employed to gauge their reading proficiency. Statistical tools such as percentage, weighted mean, Linear Regression Analysis, and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis were used to analyze the data. The results indicated that the majority of learners have a favorable attitude toward reading, with a preference for social media platforms as their primary reading resource. Overall, the learners’ reading proficiency, in terms of word reading score and comprehension score, is at the “frustration” level. The data further revealed that the frequency of (a) reading fiction and books, (b) utilizing online learning tools like social media posts, and (c) watching social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok is positively and significantly related to the learners’ reading proficiency in terms of reading score. Conversely, the frequency of (a) reading magazines and (b) watching TV programs like Food Network Asia is negatively and significantly related to the learners’ reading proficiency in terms of reading score. In conclusion, this inquiry sheds light on the complex relationship between students' reading preferences and their proficiency levels. While there is a prevalent inclination towards reading among learners, a noteworthy segment demonstrates restrained enthusiasm, primarily due to time constraints. Therefore, addressing obstacles such as limited time and harnessing digital tools are essential for devising effective approaches to improve reading engagement and skill levels.

Hemodynamic Response Biomarkers for Aging Brain Health: Bogalusa Heart Study

AbstractBackgroundIn functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a hemodynamic response function describes how neuron firing events are translated into a blood oxygenation response that is detected through imaging. The HRF varies between individuals and between brain regions, and its characteristics are believed to be valuable biomarkers of neurovascular aspects of brain health. However, the impact of cardiovascular risks on HRF characteristics among diverse cognitively healthy middle aged and older adults is not well studied.Method137 Bogalusa Heart Study participants performed a Stroop task during fMRI (Table.1). The HRFs of each participant within eight regions of interest (ROIs) previously identified as activated by this task [1] were calculated using a deep learning method. Each HRF was characterized by four main parameters (Figure 1): time to peak (TTP), peak magnitude (PM), trough magnitude (TM), and area under the HRF curve (AUHRF). Linear regression models related HRF parameters to demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures.ResultTable 2 shows the associations between demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures and HRF parameters. Younger age was associated with lower AUHRF in the inferior frontal gyrus (p‐value = 0.052). Whites (compared to African Americans) had lower PM in the angular gyrus and lower AUHRF in the anterior insula (maximum p‐value = 0.022). Better systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure were associated with shorter TTP in the angular gyrus and cerebellum (maximum p‐value = 0.029). APOE 3‐3 genotype and better BMI were associated with shorter TTP in the middle frontal gyrus and fusiform gyrus (maximum p‐value = 0.025). Better white matter hyperintensity volume was associated with lower PM and TM in the anterior insula and cerebellum (maximum p‐value = 0.032). Better digit span backwards score, digit coding score, vocabulary score, and word reading score were associated with shorter TTP and lower AUHRF in the angular gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, and/or inferior frontal gyrus (maximum p‐value = 0.038).ConclusionIn a diverse, cognitively healthy, middle‐aged community sample, HRF parameters tracked closely with recognized indicators of brain health. Overall, lower TTP, PM, TM, and AUHRF represent better brain health, as there is no delay and alteration in neural‐vascular coupling unit.

Developing a residual cognitive reserve index in a paediatric cohort with ADHD

AbstractBackgroundCognitive reserve (CR) is thought to be protective against late‐life cognitive decline induced by neurodegenerative disease and other forms of neurological insult. Although CR is thought to be influenced by early life experiences, information about its development during childhood and adolescence is lacking. The current study operationalised CR with a residual index approach (Reed et al., 2010) optimised for a diverse paediatric cohort. Criterion and construct validity of the index was also assessed.MethodData collected across 2011‐2019 from N = 115 children (MAge= 10.48, SDAge= 0.61, n = 72 [63%] male, n = 43 [37%] with ADHD) were acquired from the Murdoch Children’s Research Institute. Elastic‐net regularised linear regression was used to generate baseline and longitudinal CR indices that represented residual variance in (change in) fluid intellect (Matrix Reasoning) not explained by demographics (i.e., sex and age) or MRI‐based brain variables (i.e., cortical surface areas and cerebellar/subcortical volumes); brain regions were selected with the aim of partialling maximal variance out of the CR residual index. Outcome variables, including word reading, math computation, and Conners 3 ADHD Index were then regressed onto baseline and longitudinal CR indices.ResultsBaseline CR predicted baseline math computation (p&lt;.001), while change in CR predicted change in word reading ability (p&lt;.001). Further, in individuals with low grey matter volume, higher CR was associated with higher word reading score (p = .019) and lower ADHD Index (p = .047) compared to those with lower CR, at baseline. Higher change in CR also protected word reading trajectory in individuals with higher change in WMH volumes (p = .048).ConclusionThese results suggest that individual differences in CR, as operationalised through a residual index, may be detectable in school‐age children. While findings regarding criterion and construct validity of the CR index are stronger than previous research featuring an unoptimised residual model (Irani, 2022), support for the validity of the index remains incomplete compared to established geriatric models – possibly due in part to a relatively less predictable relationship between brain structure and cognition in children versus adults. Future research would benefit from longer‐term follow‐up in paediatric samples with greater variability in neuropathological indices, cognitive functioning, academic achievement, and functional outcomes.

32 Effects of Emotion Regulation and Emotional Lability/Negativity on Academic Achievement Among Youth With and Without ADHD

Objective:Youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), characterized by symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, often experience challenges with emotion regulation (ER) and/or emotional lability/negativity (ELN).1-3 Prior work has shown that difficulties with ER and ELN among young children contribute to lower academic achievement.4-6 To date, research examining associations between ADHD and academic achievement have primarily focused on the roles of inattentive symptoms and executive functioning.7-8 However, preliminary work among youth with ADHD suggests significant associations between disruptions in emotional functioning and poor academic outcomes.9-10 The current study will examine associations between ER, ELN, and specific subdomains of academic achievement (i.e., reading, spelling, math) among youth with and without ADHD.Participants and Methods:Forty-six youth (52% male; Mage=9.52 years; 76.1% Hispanic/Latino; 21 with ADHD) and their parents were recruited as part of an ongoing study. Parents completed the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale11 and Emotion Regulation Checklist12 about their child. Youth completed the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-II13 and three subtests [Spelling (SP), Numerical Operations (NO), Word Reading (WR)] of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III.14 Univariate analysis of variance assessed differences in emotional functioning and academic achievement among youth with and without ADHD. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to examine the association between emotional factors and the three subtests of academic achievement.Results:Youth with ADHD exhibited significantly higher ELN (M=30.7, SD=8.7) compared to their peers (M=23.2, SD=5.8), when controlling for child age, sex, and diagnoses of conduct disorder and/or oppositional defiant disorder [F(1,41)=8.96, p&lt;.01, ŋp2=.18]. With respect to ER, youth with (M=24.8, SD=4.2) and without ADHD (M=25.8, SD=4.3) did not differ [F(1,41)=.51, p=.48]. Surprisingly, within this sample, ADHD diagnostic status was not significantly associated with performance on any of the academic achievement subtests [WR: F(1,41)=.29, p=.59; NO: F(1,41)=.91, p=.35; SP: F(1,41)=2.14, p=.15]. Among all youth, ER was significantly associated with WR (r=.31, p=.04) and SP (r=.35, p=.02), whereas ELN was associated with performance on NO (r=-.30, p=.04). When controlling for child age, sex, IQ, and ER within the full sample, higher ELN was associated with lower scores on the NO subtest (b=-.56, SE=.26, p=.04). The associations between higher ER and WR scores (b=1.12, SE=.51, p=.03), as well as higher ER and SP scores (b=1.47, SE=.56, p=.01), were significant when controlling for child age and sex, but not ELN and IQ (p=.73 and p=.64, respectively).Conclusions:As expected, youth with ADHD had higher ELN, although they did not differ from their peers in terms of ER. Results identified distinct associations between ER and higher reading/spelling performance, as well as ELN and lower math performance across all youth. Thus, findings suggest that appropriate emotional coping skills may be most important for reading and spelling, while emotional reactivity appears most salient to math performance outcomes. In particular, ELN may be a beneficial target for intervention, especially with respect to improvement in math problem-solving skills. Future work should account for executive functioning skills, expand the academic achievement domains to include fluency and more complex academic skills, and assess longitudinal pathways within a larger sample.

63 Examining TOPF Performance in a Neurodegenerative Population

Objective:Cognitive tests on which performance is unrelated to brain pathology are considered “hold” tests and are often used to estimate cognitive abilities prior to injury or disease. Amongst the most commonly used “hold” tests are measures of irregular word reading, such as the Test of Premorbid Functioning (TOPF). Measures of irregular word reading assess ability to accurately pronounce phonetic irregularities based on prior experience and word knowledge, and tend to be insensitive to most forms of brain pathology (Lezak, 2012). However, research examining whether a relationship exists between neurodegenerative diseases and decline in irregular word reading is limited. The few studies completed have demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in neurodegenerative disease in general (Berg, Durant, Banks, &amp; Miller, 2016) and Alzheimer’s dementia specifically (McFarlane, Welch, &amp; Rodgers, 2006). However, no known research has been published examining whether irregular word reading and TOPF scores differ depending on cognitive classifications commensurate with DSM-V diagnoses (i.e., mild or major neurocognitive disorder, etc.), or presumed neurological etiology.Participants and Methods:Patients were enrolled from the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic. This study was a retrospective review of consecutive referrals over the age of 65 to the University of Colorado Hospital Neuropsychology Clinic from 2019 to present. The TOPF was administered along with a full neuropsychological battery and patients were clinically classified by severity of cognitive impairment (e.g., Normal, Mild Neurocognitive Disorder, Major Neurocognitive Disorder) and presumed neurologic etiology (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), and mixed dementia (AD and VCI). TOPF Raw scores were used for all analyses. Correlation analysis was conducted to determine significant relationships between various demographic variables and TOPF performance. ANCOVA analyses were conducted to examine differences on TOPF performance by diagnostic classification and differences on TOPF performance by presumed neurologic etiology.Results:Correlation determined a significant relationship between TOPF performance and education (r = .51, p &lt; .001), but not age (p = .092) or gender (p = .680). ANCOVA revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on diagnostic group classification after controlling for education, F(2, 504)= 26.45, p &lt; .001. Post hoc analysis revealed that those diagnosed with Major Neurocognitive Disorder performed the worst on the TOPF (M=39.801 ± .958), followed by those diagnosed with Mild Neurocognitive Disorder (M= 45.371 ± .767), while those diagnosed as cognitively normal performed the best (M= 49.826 ± .993). Additional ANCOVA analysis revealed a significant effect of TOPF performance on presumed neurologic etiology after controlling for education, F(3,148)=6.07, p = .001. Post hoc analyses revealed that participants with suspected AD (M= 40.728 ± 1.613) and those with suspected VCI (M= 32.804 ± 3.480) performed worse on the TOPF compared to those with suspected PD (M=46.964 ± 1.506), (p=.042 and p = .004, respectively).Conclusions:Results suggest that TOPF performance in older individuals is sensitive to cognitive impairment. Furthermore, these results suggest that this sensitivity may be further influenced by presumed neurologic etiology. These findings are consistent with prior studies which demonstrated a decline in irregular word reading in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases.

Effectiveness of a Mixed Methods-Based Literacy Program in Improving Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary Mastery, and Reading Fluency Skills of Early Grade Students

Many young children still experience reading difficulties when they enter school age. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a mixed methods-based reading literacy program (computer-assisted reading, independent tiered reading, and group-based reading teaching) to improve reading comprehension skills, vocabulary mastery, and reading fluency among early grade students. The study used a quantitative approach with experimental research methods. A quasi-experimental design was used to achieve the research objectives by involving 350 elementary school students who were in the fourth to sixth grade range of elementary school. The sample selection in this study involved the purposive sampling technique using several criteria. The teachers involved in this study totaled 150 teachers from 8 schools who acted as program implementers at school. The reading literacy program was implemented for two semesters for five days each week. The research findings show that the mixed methods-based reading literacy program had a significant effect on all competencies (word reading efficiency, reading comprehension ability, and reading fluency) in Grade 3 students, but this increase in ability was not seen in grades 5 and 6 students. More specifically, the effect size of the intervention on oral reading fluency in Grade 3 students was greater than the effect size in Grade 5 students. Furthermore, the effect size in Grade 4 was greater than the effect size in grades 5 and 6. This is because the treatment of reading difficulties in younger students is easier and more effective than in older students. In addition, based on the results of the correlation analysis, the number of words read during reading activities using a computer had a positive relationship with word reading scores and visual word reading efficiency in the post-test phase. Therefore, mixed methods-based literacy programs have a significant impact on reading fluency, and on vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension competence and reading fluency. This research has implications in that improving reading ability in the early grades is better done by using a combination of methods, such as computer-assisted reading, independent tiered reading, and group-based reading teaching. In this way, the improvement of students’ reading skills is more optimal.

Factors Affecting the Reading Performance of the Junior High School Learners

The study was conducted at Sil-ipon Integrated School (SIS) and aimed to assess the factors that affected the reading performance level of junior high students. The researcher evaluated the demographic profile of the learners, their reading proficiency levels, differences in reading performance based on their profiles, and a proposed reading intervention plan. Demographic profiles were assessed using frequency and percentage, which revealed that the majority of the respondents were 8th grade students, mostly female, and ranged in age from 14 to 16 years old. They frequently had 1 to 3 siblings, and their parents were both high-school level with a monthly family income of below 5,000 pesos. Reading proficiency levels were evaluated through Phil-IRI 2018 assessment tool which measures the reading speed, word reading, and reading comprehension scores. The findings showed that junior high school students of SIS had a low/frustration proficiency level, indicating that they experienced difficulties in reading. To determine differences in reading proficiency scores based on learners group profile, T-tests and ANOVA were used. The results showed that grade level, age, and number of siblings significantly influenced the learners reading proficiency level. Finally, a comprehensive reading intervention plan was proposed that involved providing targeted interventions, increasing access to non-print reading materials, and collaborating with families and the community. The study was conducted to help educators and school administrators improve the reading skills of the learners.

Brain effective connectivity and functional connectivity as markers of lifespan vascular exposures in middle-aged adults: The Bogalusa Heart Study.

Effective connectivity (EC), the causal influence that functional activity in a source brain location exerts over functional activity in a target brain location, has the potential to provide different information about brain network dynamics than functional connectivity (FC), which quantifies activity synchrony between locations. However, head-to-head comparisons between EC and FC from either task-based or resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) data are rare, especially in terms of how they associate with salient aspects of brain health. In this study, 100 cognitively-healthy participants in the Bogalusa Heart Study aged 54.2 ± 4.3years completed Stroop task-based fMRI, resting-state fMRI. EC and FC among 24 regions of interest (ROIs) previously identified as involved in Stroop task execution (EC-task and FC-task) and among 33 default mode network ROIs (EC-rest and FC-rest) were calculated from task-based and resting-state fMRI using deep stacking networks and Pearson correlation. The EC and FC measures were thresholded to generate directed and undirected graphs, from which standard graph metrics were calculated. Linear regression models related graph metrics to demographic, cardiometabolic risk factors, and cognitive function measures. Women and whites (compared to men and African Americans) had better EC-task metrics, and better EC-task metrics associated with lower blood pressure, white matter hyperintensity volume, and higher vocabulary score (maximum value of p = 0.043). Women had better FC-task metrics, and better FC-task metrics associated with APOE-ε4 3-3 genotype and better hemoglobin-A1c, white matter hyperintensity volume and digit span backwards score (maximum value of p = 0.047). Better EC rest metrics associated with lower age, non-drinker status, and better BMI, white matter hyperintensity volume, logical memory II total score, and word reading score (maximum value of p = 0.044). Women and non-drinkers had better FC-rest metrics (value of p = 0.004). In a diverse, cognitively healthy, middle-aged community sample, EC and FC based graph metrics from task-based fMRI data, and EC based graph metrics from resting-state fMRI data, were associated with recognized indicators of brain health in differing ways. Future studies of brain health should consider taking both task-based and resting-state fMRI scans and measuring both EC and FC analyses to get a more complete picture of functional networks relevant to brain health.

Effective Connectivity Is A More Promising Biomarker for Brain Health in Middle‐Aged Adults Than Functional Connectivity: Bogalusa Heart Study

AbstractBackgroundEffective connectivity, the causal influence that functional activity in a source brain location exerts over functional activity in a target brain location, has the potential to provide richer information about brain networks than functional connectivity, which only quantifies activity synchrony between regions. However, head‐to‐head comparisons of effective and functional connectivity from functional MRI data are rare, especially among diverse cognitively healthy middle aged and older adults.Method100 Bogalusa Heart Study participants performed a Stroop task during functional MRI (Table 1). Effective connectivity and functional connectivity among 24 regions of interest (ROIs) previously identified as activated by this task [1] were calculated using deep stacking networks [2] and Pearson correlation, respectively. Graph metrics were then calculated from directed graphs resulting from effective connectivity and undirected graphs resulting from functional connectivity. Linear regression models related graph metrics to demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures.ResultFigure 1 shows the group‐consensus effective and functional connectivity graphs. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was associated with effective connectivity based characteristic path length (Pearson’s r = 0.22, p‐value = 0.038) and modularity (r = 0.25, p‐value = 0.02) (Figure 2). Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was associated with effective connectivity based degree, density, clustering coefficient, modularity, transitivity, characteristic path length, and global efficiency (|r| = 0.26 ‐ 0.35, maximum p‐value = 0.013) (Figure 2). Word reading and vocabulary scores from the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) were associated with effective connectivity based degree, density, clustering coefficient, transitivity, characteristic path length, modularity, and global efficiency (|r| = 0.21 ‐ 0.27, maximum p‐value = 0.049). Logical Memory II Recognition scores associated with effective connectivity based assortativity (r = 0.24, p‐value = 0.025). Associations between functional connectivity based graph metrics and demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures were not significant.ConclusionIn a diverse, cognitively healthy, middle‐aged community sample, graph metrics derived from effective connectivity based directed graphs tracked more closely with recognized indicators of brain health than traditional functional connectivity based undirected graph metrics.

Effective Connectivity Is A More Promising Biomarker for Brain Health in Middle‐Aged Adults Than Functional Connectivity: Bogalusa Heart Study

AbstractBackgroundEffective connectivity, the causal influence that functional activity in a source brain location exerts over functional activity in a target brain location, has the potential to provide richer information about brain networks than functional connectivity, which only quantifies activity synchrony between regions. However, head‐to‐head comparisons of effective and functional connectivity from functional MRI data are rare, especially among diverse cognitively healthy middle aged and older adults.Method100 Bogalusa Heart Study participants performed a Stroop task during functional MRI (Table 1). Effective connectivity and functional connectivity among 24 regions of interest (ROIs) previously identified as activated by this task [1] were calculated using deep stacking networks [2] and Pearson correlation, respectively. Graph metrics were then calculated from directed graphs resulting from effective connectivity and undirected graphs resulting from functional connectivity. Linear regression models related graph metrics to demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures.ResultFigure 1 shows the group‐consensus effective and functional connectivity graphs. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was associated with effective connectivity based characteristic path length (Pearson’s r = 0.22, p‐value = 0.038) and modularity (r = 0.25, p‐value = 0.02) (Figure 2). Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was associated with effective connectivity based degree, density, clustering coefficient, modularity, transitivity, characteristic path length, and global efficiency (|r| = 0.26 ‐ 0.35, maximum p‐value = 0.013) (Figure 2). Word reading and vocabulary scores from the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) were associated with effective connectivity based degree, density, clustering coefficient, transitivity, characteristic path length, modularity, and global efficiency (|r| = 0.21 ‐ 0.27, maximum p‐value = 0.049). Logical Memory II Recognition scores associated with effective connectivity based assortativity (r = 0.24, p‐value = 0.025). Associations between functional connectivity based graph metrics and demographic, cardiometabolic, and cognitive measures were not significant.ConclusionIn a diverse, cognitively healthy, middle‐aged community sample, graph metrics derived from effective connectivity based directed graphs tracked more closely with recognized indicators of brain health than traditional functional connectivity based undirected graph metrics.

Preoperative Reading Efficiency as a Predictor of Adult Cochlear Implant Outcomes.

1) Scores of reading efficiency (the Test of Word Reading Efficiency, second edition) obtained in adults before cochlear implant surgery will be predictive of speech recognition outcomes 6 months after surgery; and 2) Cochlear implantation will lead to improvements in language processing as measured through reading efficiency from preimplantation to postimplantation. Adult cochlear implant (CI) users display remarkable variability in speech recognition outcomes. "Top-down" processing-the use of cognitive resources to make sense of degraded speech-contributes to speech recognition abilities in CI users. One area that has received little attention is the efficiency of lexical and phonological processing. In this study, a visual measure of word and nonword reading efficiency-relying on lexical and phonological processing, respectively-was investigated for its ability to predict CI speech recognition outcomes, as well as to identify any improvements after implantation. Twenty-four postlingually deaf adult CI candidates were tested on the Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition preoperatively and again 6 months post-CI. Six-month post-CI speech recognition measures were also assessed across a battery of word and sentence recognition. Preoperative nonword reading scores were moderately predictive of sentence recognition outcomes, but real word reading scores were not; word recognition scores were not predicted by either. No 6-month post-CI improvement was demonstrated in either word or nonword reading efficiency. Phonological processing as measured by the Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition nonword reading predicts to a moderate degree 6-month sentence recognition outcomes in adult CI users. Reading efficiency did not improve after implantation, although this could be because of the relatively short duration of CI use.

Racial differences in scores on the HIV Dementia Scale: mediating effects of literacy and screening utility among Black and White persons with HIV disease

ABSTRACT There are many obstacles to screening for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), including the influence of various sociodemographic effects on screening measures. This study examined possible racial bias on the HIV Dementia Scale (HDS) in screening for HAND among 39 Black and 84 White persons living with HIV (PLWH). Black PLWH had significantly lower raw HDS scores than White PLWH, which was mediated by lower oral word reading scores. Nevertheless, HDS scores were comparably predictive of clinical HAND diagnoses for Black and White PLWH as determined by a comprehensive battery; overall, individuals who failed the HDS were three times as likely to have HAND as compared to those who performed within normal limits (sensitivity = .26, specificity = .94). Consistent with prior literature exploring race-group differences, findings suggest that lower scores among Black PLWH compared to White PLWH on a commonly-used screening measure for HAND are partly explained by reading scores, perhaps reflecting differences in educational quality and opportunities. However, race-group differences did not affect the classification accuracy of the HDS in detecting HAND, although overall diagnostic accuracy was modest in both groups. Future work should determine the optimal neurocognitive screening methods for Black PLWH and other under-represented ethnoracial groups.

Characterizing and comparing adaptive and academic functioning in children with low average and below average intellectual abilities

Objective The recent American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) consensus statement on uniform labeling of performance test scores places children who were previously characterized as having “borderline intellectual functioning” within the low average (LA; full scale intellectual quotient (FSIQ) between 80-89) or below average (BA; FSIQ between 70-79) categories. Given limited research examining functional differences across FSIQ groups using AACN’s uniform labeling, this study examined adaptive and academic functioning by FSIQ group in youth referred for (neuro)psychological evaluation. Primary comparisons of interest were between LA and BA groups. MethodParticipants were 2,516 children between 6 to 13 years with standardized measures of intellectual, adaptive, and academic functioning. Participants were included if their FSIQ ranged from average to exceptionally low. Group differences in adaptive functioning and academic achievement were examined. ResultsThe LA group did not differ from the BA group in overall adaptive functioning and several domains of adaptive functioning (i.e. social, practical), but demonstrated slightly stronger adaptive skills in the conceptual domain. While the LA group evidenced slightly better word reading and math computation scores than the BA group, these statistically significant differences were not clinically ­meaningful. ConclusionsIn this clinically referred sample, children with LA and BA intellectual abilities demonstrated similar adaptive skills, but slightly different academic achievement. Both groups demonstrated lower adaptive and academic functioning than children with average range FSIQs. These results suggest that adaptive functioning should be assessed during (neuro)psychological evaluations even when children do not have extremely low FSIQs.

Compounding Effects of Domain-General Cognitive Weaknesses and Word Reading Difficulties on Anxiety Symptoms in Youth

This study examined whether domain-general cognitive weaknesses in processing speed (PS) or executive functioning (EF) moderate the relation between word reading scores and anxiety such that lower word reading scores in combination with lower cognitive scores are associated with higher anxiety symptoms. The sample consisted of 755 youth ages 8–16 who were recruited as part of the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center twins study. Lower scores on PS (R2 = .007, p = .014), EF (R2 = .009, p = .006), and word reading (R2 = .006–.008, p = .010–.032) were associated with higher anxiety scores. In addition, the word reading × cognitive interactions were significant such that lower scores on PS (R2 = .010, p = .005) or EF (R2 = .013, p = .010) combined with lower word reading were associated with higher-than-expected anxiety symptoms. Results suggest that weaknesses in PS, EF, and word reading are modestly associated with higher anxiety symptoms, and these anxiety symptoms may be compounded in youth with both PS or EF weaknesses and word reading difficulties. These findings can guide assessment approaches for identifying youth with word reading challenges who may be at increased risk for anxiety.

Cognitive and academic outcomes in children with chronic kidney disease

BackgroundFew data exist on the cognitive and academic functioning of children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) over the trajectory of their illness. We aimed to determine the association between CKD stages and cognitive and academic performance in children over time.MethodsWe included 53 participants (aged 6–18 years) with CKD stages 1–5 (n = 37), on dialysis (n = 3), or with functioning kidney transplant (n = 22) from three units in Australia from 2015 to 2019. Participants undertook a series of psychometric tests and were invited for repeated assessments annually. We used linear regression and linear mixed models to investigate the effect of CKD stage, adjusted for socioeconomic status.ResultsAt baseline, full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) (95%CI) of children on kidney replacement therapy (KRT) was in the low average range (87: 78, 96) and average (101: 95, 108) for children with CKD 1–5. Mean (95%CI) FSIQ, word reading, numerical operations, and spelling scores for children on KRT were 14.3 (− 25.3, − 3.3), 11 (− 18.5, − 3.6), 8.5 (− 17.6, 0.76), and 10 (− 18.6, − 1.3) points lower than children with CKD Stages 1–5. Spelling and numerical operations scores declined by 0.7 (− 1.4, − 0.1) and 1.0 (− 2.0, 0.2) units per year increase in age, regardless of CKD stage.ConclusionsChildren treated with KRT have low average cognitive abilities and lower academic performance for numeracy and literacy compared to both children with CKD 1–5 and to the general population. However, the rate of decline in academic performance over time is similar for children across the full spectrum of CKD.Graphical abstractA higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

The effect of different teacher literacy training programmes on student’s word reading abilities in government primary schools in Northern Nigeria

ABSTRACT This study in Kano State, Nigeria, uses a quasi-experimental design to investigate the effectiveness of two teacher training programmes (ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics) in 536 government primary schools. In total, 5,449 children were tested using the phonics screening check to determine which teacher training programme positively affects learning. The effects are greater when teachers have completed two different programmes using adaptive instruction and include elements of coaching and mentoring. A pupil whose teacher has undertaken both training programmes will score 6.062 (p < 0.001) points higher in Primary One and 4.344 (p < 0.01) points higher in Primary Two. English spoken in the home, being a boy, and being older in your year group have a significant positive effect on word reading score. This research highlights the importance of meaningful and impactful teacher training on children’s reading development in English, the medium of instruction in Nigeria from the 4th year of primary school.