Woodland Degradation Research Articles

Net primary productivity of Betula platyphylla woodland and the response of current-year shoots to vegetation degradation in Mongolian forest steppe

At the southern margin of forest steppe vegetation in Mongolia, Betula platyphylla woodlands occur on north-facing slopes and hill tops, where congeneric shrub Betula fusca often coexists. Woodland degradation results in B. fusca scrub with scattered B. platyphylla trees. We studied structure and productivity of a B. platyphylla woodland and the current-year shoot allometry in the Hustai National Park of central Mongolia. For the B. platyphylla woodland examined, stand basal area and estimated aboveground biomass for stems ≥ 3 cm diameter were 3.9 m2 ha–1 and 13.3 Mg dry mass ha–1, respectively. Leaf area index was 0.93 indicating open canopy layer. Aboveground net primary productivity as the sum of coarse wood production and current-year shoot mass amounted to 1.89 Mg dry mass ha–1 year–1, which was high relative to small aboveground biomass. Analysis of current-year shoot allometry demonstrated that B. platyphylla had more xeromorphic shoots in the scrub, with smaller specific leaf area, lower mass ratio of leaf laminae to supporting parts, and smaller lamina mass against sum of petiole basal area, than in the woodland. Our results indicate that current-year shoot allometry characterizes tree response to woodland degradation at the dry margin of forest steppe.

Birds as potential bioindicators for terrestrial ecosystems

Considering the lack of ecosystems’ monitoring in Armenia and the urgent necessity of setting up such a system for decision making in nature conservation and natural resource management, the current paper aims at identification of indicator bird species for the key types of ecosystems in the country and crosscutting influence of climate change. In the forests, the study identified the bird species composition, total number of all birds, and 11 species as indicators of degradation, fragmentation, and aridization. In grasslands, the total number of all birds and seven species indicate degradation of the mountain steppes and meadows due to overgrazing and uncontrolled mowing. In arid lands, the change of bird species composition and total number of all birds indicate degradation of semi-deserts, scrublands, and juniper woodlands due to their transformation into orchards, while six species indicate degradation of these habitats due to overgrazing. In rivers and streams, four species indicate fragmentation of the rivers. In wetlands, at least seven species indicate drainage of the wetlands, and at least one indicates wetlands’ pollution. Also, the study identified seven species, which indicate the influence of climate change on birds’ distribution at the Eurasian scale. There is still a need for additional study of the indicators of wetlands and lakes, and influence of climate change. A need for improvement of the policy and institutional framework is important as well.

Socio-Economic Value and Availability of Plant-Based Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) within the Charcoal Production Basin of the City of Lubumbashi (DR Congo)

The overexploitation of forest resources in the charcoal production basin of the city of Lubumbashi (DR Congo) is reducing the resilience of miombo woodlands and threatening the survival of the riparian as well as urban human populations that depend on it. We assessed the socio-economic value and availability of plant-based non-timber forest products NTFPs in the rural area of Lubumbashi through ethnobotanical (100 respondents) and socio-economic (90 respondents) interviews, supplemented with floristic inventories, in two village areas selected on the basis of the level of forest degradation. The results show that 60 woody species, including 46 in the degraded forest (Maksem) and 53 in the intact forest (Mwawa), belonging to 22 families are used as sources of NTFPs in both villages. Among these species, 25 are considered priority species. NTFPs are collected for various purposes, including handcrafting, hut building, and traditional medicine. Moreover, the ethnobotanical lists reveal a similarity of almost 75%, indicating that both local communities surveyed use the same species for collecting plant-based NTFPs despite differences in the level of degradation of the miombo woodlands in the two corresponding study areas. However, the plant-based NTFPs that are collected from miombo woodlands and traded in the urban markets have significant economic value, which ranges from USD 0.5 to USD 14.58 per kg depending on the species and uses. NTFPs used for handicraft purposes have a higher economic value than those used for other purposes. However, the sustainability of this activity is threatened due to unsustainable harvesting practices that include stem slashing, root digging, and bark peeling of woody species. Consequently, there is a low availability of plant-based NTFPs, particularly in the village area, where forest degradation is more advanced. It is imperative that policies for monitoring and regulating harvesting and promoting the sustainable management of communities’ plant-based NTFPs as a priority, be undertaken to maintain their resilience.

Trees response to selective thinning and pruning in Sudanian woodland zone

IntroductionManaging the degradation and loss of Sudanian woodlands to ensure sustainable use for mainly firewood, poles, and timber is receiving increasing attention, and it requires tailored strategies to improve stand productivity. This study determined: (i) tree response (density, recruitment, and height growth) to selective stem thinning and branch pruning; and (ii) tree species that are most affected by selective stem thinning and branch pruning in the Sudanian woodland of Benin.MethodsThree homogeneous vegetation units of 80 m × 80 m each were identified, representing the three stages of woodland development (WDS): early and young WDS of 3 and 3–5 years old, respectively, and the advanced to mature secondary WDS of 6–9 years old. Three random blocks of 20 m × 20 m each, subdivided into four 10 m × 10 m treatment plots, were delineated per vegetation unit. Each of these plots was randomly assigned a treatment (T): T1—no thinning and no pruning; T2—30% thinning; T3—60% thinning; T4—100% thinning. Branch pruning was applied to all remaining stems in T2 and T3. Tree species, stem abundance and height of individuals = 1 m were recorded every 6 months in 2015 and 2016.Results and discussionThinning intensity significantly influence tree density both in WDS 2 and 3 with the 30% thinning showing the best tree density (3355.56 ± 250.19 stems/ha and 3255.56 ± 772.68 stems/ha, respectively). However, more stem recruitment was observed without thinning and pruning (883.33 ± 212.13 stems/ha), and 30% thinning and pruning (383.33 ± 164.99 stems/ha). There was a significant increase in tree height growth both in WDS 2 and 3 with an increasing thinning intensity. The two most affected tree species were Terminalia avicennioides and Pteleopsis suberosa with an average growth in height after 6 months of 105.5 ± 1.05 mm (for 30% thinning and pruning in stage 3), and 61.75 ± 0.67 mm (for 60% thinning and pruning in stage 3), respectively. Overall, moderate stem thinning (30%) at WDS 1 and more severe thinning at WDS 2 and 3 resulted in the best tree height growth and recruitment.

Late-Holocene vegetation and fire history in Western Putorana Plateau (subarctic Siberia, Russia)

We present a reconstruction of vegetation dynamics and fire history from the western part of the Putorana Plateau during the Late-Holocene. The study area is located in the remote and poorly investigated region of Central Siberia, which represents an important area for understanding climate and environmental changes in the Russian Subarctic. Pollen and macroscopic charcoal data from three closely located lakes along an altitudinal transect in the Khantaika River basin show no major changes in vegetation in the study area during the last 3.9 ka BP. However, a detailed analysis of the data reveals an extension of forest coverage in lake catchments at about 3.1 ka BP followed by a gradual degradation of woodlands, and an expansion of shrubs and tundra vegetation at around 2.7–2.5 ka BP. Fire activity was relatively high between 3.0 and 2.0 ka BP compared to all but the most modern part of the record, while macroscopic charcoal accumulation reaches a maximum in the most recent surface sediments. This suggests an increase in the frequency and area of fires in the region since the end of the 19th century, which has no analog during the Late-Holocene.

Interactive effects of chronic anthropogenic disturbances on Prosopis woodland structure in the Central Monte, Argentina

In drylands all over the world, chronic anthropic disturbances are relevant factors for woodland degradation. Different disturbances can potentially interact to change vegetation structure. Knowing woodland structure is crucial for better predicting forest dynamic because trees of different sizes significantly affect the regeneration processes, number of saplings and young trees, crown traits and competition attributes. Throughout the Monte biogeographic region, grazing and wood extraction are the main anthropogenic disturbances on Prosopis dry woodlands that can generate modifications in key ecosystem processes. First, we aimed to assess woodland structure at sites under chronic anthropic disturbances. Subsequently, we explored how the combination of grazing and wood extraction affected the population structure of P. flexuosa considered by classes: seedlings, saplings and adults. We found that sites under disturbances presented a high density of trees of smaller sizes. Besides, the interaction effect between grazing and wood extraction depended on the intensities of each of the disturbances. The combination of high intensities of both grazing and wood extraction negatively affected the abundance of all classes, but low or moderate grazing intensities combined with high wood extraction had a positive effect on the abundance of saplings and adults. High intensities of co-occurring disturbances decreased seedling abundance affecting forest recruitment which also was negatively reflected in sapling and adult abundance. However, the combination of low or moderate grazing and high wood extraction generated a woodland structure characterized by few seedlings, and many saplings and adult trees of small size. Application of management options (e.g., spatial or temporal separation of human use, programmed management of grazing and wood extraction intensities or planned practices as wood removal for local use) should contribute to enhance the provision of ecosystem services in Prosopis sp. woodlands without risking regeneration persistence and improving the woodland structure.

Woodland Extraction Rate Estimation in the Savanna Ecosystem (Case Study of Foley and Makomoto in Central-East Botswana)

Savanna woodlands make a significant contribution to rural households’ livelihoods, providing a wide range of resources as well as generating income. However, the sustainability of the woodland ecosystem is generally affected by the human harvesting intensities. This study aimed at quantifying the woodland resource extraction rates and its effects on woodland structure and density. Data were collected from households using a semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews, and from 128 rectangular plots measuring 30 m × 30 m. Vegetation parameters, such as tree density, tree height, diameter at breast height, species, stump density, and stump diameter, were recorded. The results of the study revealed that a total of 649 woody stumps were recorded, with an average of 56 trees removed per hectare. The findings showed that the intensities of stumps varied widely, with a high number of stumps recorded at a distance of 10–15 km from the settlements, where major land-use activities are fuelwood extraction, cultivation, and livestock farming. The results also showed that the increased commercial fuelwood production led to cutting of large mopane trees, which is an indicator of unsustainable harvesting. Based on the harvest rates provided by the respondents, results showed that large quantities of fuelwood were harvested for trading, which could put pressure on the woodland ecosystem, consequently resulting in woodland degradation. This study provides forest and range resource managers with valuable information on the quantities of stumps as an indication of tree removals and could be useful in developing effective monitoring strategies and promoting sustainable forest and woodland management.

Tracking native small mammals to measure fine-scale space use in grazed and restored dry woodlands

The degradation of dry woodlands in South America by agricultural activities affects wildlife through a decrease in available habitat and fine-scale changes in habitat structure. The impact of land use can be perceived by small, mobile organisms as preventing or facilitating their movement through and among habitats, consequently altering ecosystem functions. By tracking with radiotelemetry we describe for the first time the pattern of movement of a small mammal (Graomys griseoflavus) that inhabits dry woodland ecosystems in South America and its relationship with environmental features that affect movement. We measured environmental variables linked to the ecological requirements of the species (e.g., plant cover and patches of forage species consumed) in restored and grazed woodlands and compared movements between seasons (dry and wet). We found that the fine-scale differences in the vegetation cover associated with livestock grazing changed the mobility and use of space of this small mammal. The step-lengths and used area for G. griseoflavus were greater under passive restoration compared to the area grazed by livestock. Small rodents moved between patches of similar mean size of forage species, avoiding large inter-patches of bare ground. Although both management conditions showed seasonal variations in plant cover, the step-lengths decreased significantly in the grazed woodland during the wet season, while step-lengths in the restored area were unaffected by season. The fine-scale spatial arrangement of plants in restored woodlands elucidated notable changes in animal movement on grazed lands, suggesting that space use by small mammals may be an important tool to identify habitat structures that facilitate the movement of animals in restoration of degraded systems.

Recent trends in land-use and cover change and deforestation in south–west Nigeria

Land-use and cover change reflects choices in natural resource governance. Despite heavy targets on the forest and woodland, the southwest Nigeria states have little quantitative information on the magnitude and direction of land-use change across the states. This drives unsustainable land management and deforestation. This study utilized vegetation sampling and enumeration, GIS mapping and analyses of base maps and multi-temporal Landsat imageries to generate current vegetation status and time-series land-use and cover change for the southwest Nigeria. The results suggest that the woody species density in the forest plots ranges from 512 to 1040/ha with mean density of about 770.67/ha and species diversity values range from 2.014 to 2.911. The woody species in the savanna woodland ranged from 624 to 1232/ha in density and species diversity varies between 1.189 and 2.737. Relatively fewer number of trees of larger diameter at breast height in forest and low number of species per family in savanna reflect the influence of selective forest logging and woodland degradation. The study area experienced a historical net deforestation rate of − 1.1% per annum between 1986 and 2016 with deforestation rate of the primary forest at − 3.3% between 1986 and 2016 and − 10% between 2006 and 2016. Savanna woodland grew 0.8% annually from 1986 to 2016. The states recorded net deforestation rate ranging from − 2.63 to − 7.41% between 2006 and 2016. Reforestation through exotic Teak and Gmelina plantation grew at 43% annually between 1986 and 2016.

Woodland access arrangement for charcoal production and its influence on woodland degradation in Kintampo Municipality, Ghana

Access to woodland plays a critical role in woodland degradation, yet policy efforts at addressing woodland degradation have focused on access to woodland for farming and lumbering to the detriment of access to woodland for charcoal production. Access arrangement to woodland for charcoal production is subsumed under access to woodland for farming, complicating the efforts at understanding the nexus between charcoal production and woodland degradation. This study assessed access arrangement to woodland for charcoal production and how it influences the state of the woodland in the Kintampo Municipality, a sub-political administrative area of Ghana. The views of 103 randomly selected charcoal producers from Asantekwa and Kunsu communities in the Municipality were assessed in relation to woodland access arrangement for charcoal production. Binary logistic regression was used to identify factors of charcoal production that influence woodland degradation. The results showed that procedures of access to woodland (P = 0.003), attitude of producers toward the woodland access arrangement (P = 0.023) have significant negative influence on woodland degradation. Producers perceived the procedure of access as unfair and are unwilling to follow it. Perceived unfairness in the procedure of access and unwillingness to follow it are pointers of circumventing the procedure of access to woodland, which is a recipe for conflict and woodland degradation. Woodland owners, chiefs and charcoal producers must make concerted efforts to revise the current access arrangement to woodland so that they become fair and acceptable to all parties in order to ensure sustainable woodland use.

Contribution of Parkland Agroforestry in Meeting Fuel Wood Demand in the Dry Lands of Tigray, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Shortage of fuel wood is both the cause and the consequence of deforestation and degradation of most forests and woodlands in developing countries. Agroforestry can be a sustainable option to meet household fuel demand and thus reduce pressure on natural vegetation. This study assessed the contribution of Parkland agroforestry (PLAF) practice as an alternative source of fuel wood and the subsequent improvement in the livelihood of the users in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, major sources of energy, the perception and challenges of agroforestry development, and the time households spend on collecting fuel-wood were collected from 138 randomly selected PLAF user and non-user households using structured questionnaires. The weekly consumption of fuel wood from different sources including PLAF was directly quantified using a weighing balance. Moreover, guided field observations, key informants interview and focus group discussion were used to get in-depth information and triangulate the survey data. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Propensity Score matching model was also used to analyze the contribution of PLAF to the livelihood of the small-scale farmers. The results showed that PLAF contributes about 109 ton of fuel wood annually in the study village, which is about 75% of the total energy demand of the village. The result of the Propensity Score Matching model also revealed that there was significant difference on the time they spent to collect fuel wood and income among the PLAF user and non-user households. Therefore, it can be concluded that scaling up the PLAF practice at small scale farming is an option for meeting the ever increasing energy demand and improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers.

Sustainable woodland management and livelihood options in a charcoal producing region: An agent-based modelling approach

Woodland resources provide livelihoods for millions of people in Africa. Concerns about the impact of human utilization of woodlands have led to vigorous debates on woodland degradation. Ecological and socio-economic empirical data and understanding of the socio-ecological system have been synthesized in an agent-based model (ABM) to explore different woodland management options for a dynamic, semi-arid region in Kenya. In our simulations we accounted for the impacts of drought frequency, charcoal price changes, improved management practices and taxation of charcoal for a 20-year period to assess woodland changes in a spatially explicit way and evaluate the numbers of actors that can benefit from charcoal harvesting as a livelihood option.The model is based on an agent typology derived from 150 household interviews that focused on livelihood strategies and decision-making processes. Furthermore, the model integrates knowledge from vegetation plots and focus group meetings. From the model simulations we learn that favorable prices, improved management and taxation do not directly have the anticipated impact on woodland resources, as the improved conditions lead to fewer constraints on involvement in charcoal making. This reduces the positive impacts of these measures on the woodland quality but, at the same time, allows a larger number of actors to benefit from charcoal harvesting. Results show a very strong decrease in woodland area under the base scenario thereby reducing possibilities for households to supplement their incomes with charcoal making. Increased droughts and low prices for charcoal lead to early depletion of woodlands and reduction in livelihood options. Taxation stabilizes the number of charcoal producers but does not stop the depletion of woodland area. Woodland loss can only be prevented by controlling the number of charcoal makers and the amount of charcoal harvesting.

Assessing the high impacts of land use change: spatial characteristics of land uses and ecological compensation based on payment for ecosystem services model in a mountainous area, China

Most impacts on ecosystem services (ESs) are related to land use changes that may cause ecosystem fragmentation and loss of ecosystem functions. Spatial planning focused on sustainable landscape development should consider the local potential for providing ESs as well as ecological conservation due to land use changes. To better address the issues that are related to ecological and the ecological and environmental conservation, ecological compensation could coordinate the development of the energy, the economy, and the environment by internalizing environmental externalities and adjusting for the relationships with stakeholders’ benefits. In this study, we developed a framework for analyzing the spatial characteristics of land uses and calculating ecological compensation based on pay for ecosystem services (PESs) from 1995 to 2010 in the upstream of Min River, China. In terms of lacunarity analysis, we firstly explored the spatial patterns of land uses in these two periods that occurred at different spatial characteristic scales. We also observed a strong relationship between lacunarity values and the different distribution patterns of land uses. We then investigated changes in ESs in response to land use change through the assignment of per unit area ecological service value (ESV) method. The total value of ESs dropped from 449.97 billion yuan in 1995 to 441.35 billion yuan in 2010, exhibiting decreasing rate, mainly due to the degradation of woodlands. Soil formation and retention, gas regulation, and biodiversity protection were the three largest ESs, contributing about 50% of the total ESV. Considering the changed relation between social and economic indicators and ESV based on spatial visualization and analysis, we finally constructed a quantitative estimate model for ecological compensation taking a village as study unit and determined standard value so as to evaluate ecological compensation from 1995 to 2010. Spatial differences of the ecological compensation were significant among all the villages and towns. The maximum ecological compensation account (ranged from 1.68 to 8.54 billion yuan) appeared in the villages approximated to Li County, Heishui County, and Songpan County, Sichuan, People’s Republic of China. This proposed framework provides a better understanding of spatial characteristic scales of land uses and enables evaluation of the ecological integrity of landscapes. It also fills up the gap in the field of quantitative evaluation of regional ecological compensation and provides a feasible way to reconcile the conflicts among benefits in the economic, social, and ecological sectors.

Determinantes ambientales y desafíos para el ordenamiento forestal sustentable en los algarrobales del Monte, Argentina

Una proporcion sustancial de los bosques en retroceso se ubican en zonas aridas. Los algarrobales de la Provincia Biogeografica del Monte se encuentran entre los bosques con mayores limitaciones ambientales del pais, lo que hace que la idea de un ordenamiento forestal sustentable sea dificil de lograr. En este trabajo nos proponemos discutir los determinantes ambientales y de historia de uso que limitan su potencialidad productiva, las estrategias territoriales y de manejo que contribuyan a aumentar la sustentabilidad de su aprovechamiento, y la conservacion y la recuperacion de los bosques degradados. Los algarrobales presentan un gradiente latitudinal en la estructura poblacional; esto determina su potencial forestal. Los bosques del sector norte contienen arboles de mayor tamano, crecimiento y productividad, lo que permite pensar en un manejo forestal maderero. Por su parte, en el centro y en el sur solo se podrian extraer productos de menor valor maderero (i.e., lena y postes), junto con manejos en los que la ganaderia extensiva y otros productos no madereros sean la actividad principal. La precipitacion es el mayor determinante de la receptividad ganadera, mientras que la historia de uso genero distintos estados de degradacion en los bosques. El gran desafio es poder realizar un ordenamiento territorial que considere la heterogeneidad espacial descripta y que mejore los procesos tecnologicos usados, de forma de optimizar el aprovechamiento, y que permita decidir las actividades prioritarias para cada area. Se propone la comparacion analitica de mapas de distribucion potencial, historica y actual como una herramienta con fuertes implicancias desde el punto de vista del manejo y la conservacion de los bosques, ya que permite discriminar zonas de distintos potenciales productivos, zonas potenciales de reforestacion y zonas sin vocacion forestal.https://doi.org/10.25260/EA.19.29.1.0.752

Restoration ability of seasonal exclosures under different woodland degradation stages in semiarid Chaco rangelands of Argentina

Exclosures are widely used for rangeland restoration in semiarid woodlands. However, grass recovery could be hampered if degradation exceeded certain thresholds. In this study we assessed four years effects of seasonally grazed exclosures –vs. open rangelands– on understory cover (grasses, low shrubs and litter) and peak standing biomass in three increasing degradation stages –mature forests, secondary forests and shrublands– in semiarid Chaco woodlands. We found that grass cover and biomass increased tenfold in four years in mature and secondary forests but remained virtually null in shrublands. In rested forests, the grass cover increments remained relatively constant regardless the annual rainfall amount, both in the driest year 2013 (531 mm) and the wettest year 2015 (924 mm). Only in an extraordinarily wet year (2015) did grass biomass increased in rested shrublands. In that wet year, low shrubs cover –higher at higher overstory degradation– decreased in all woodlands. Our results suggest that shrublands may constitute a new steady state unable to recover by grazing exclusion itself, but probably by its combination with wet periods.

Assessment on Acacia Woodland Degradation in Dire-Dawa Administration, Eastern Ethiopia

Dry woodlands are vegetation formations which comprise of scrubs, bush lands, thickets, wooded grasslands and dense woodlands. The largest share of Ethiopia’s landmass is categorized as dryland, experiencing moisture stress during most days of the year. Hence, lowland woodlands are the largest remaining forests in Ethiopia, covering an estimated 55 million ha (48-6 per cent) of land. Beyond the socio-economic and ecological importance of forests Ethiopia experienced rapid loss of woodland vegetation annually. At country level the loss is attributed to low level of standard of living of farming community and their close dependency on forest and woodlands. Jeldessa, Gerba-Anano and Chiri-miti kebelles of Dire-Dawa administration which is located in the eastern part of the Ethiopia has a dense acacia woodland species occupying a total area of at 12250 hectare mainly found in Hurso, Jeldessa, Gerba-Anano and Chiri-miti kebelles. The dry forest which was home and source of forage to wildlife and local pastoral communities is dwindling from time to time. As there has been no study on site specific, this study was conducted to assess the recent degradation of dry land forest in Jeldessa, Gerba-Anano and Chiri-miti kebelles of Dire-Dawa administration. The study has employed questionnaire, interview, group discussions and field observation. The findings of the study shows acacia woodland vegetation of the kebelles have been subjected to degradation due to the ease accessibility of the kebelles connected by all-weather roads has triggered fetching of charcoal. Besides, easy money making from charcoal and its rising price has anticipated poor peoples to practice it as a means of livelihood. On the other hand, concentration of livestock, recurrent drought and prosopis juliflora invasion has perceived as major factors degradation. Therefore, the cumulative negative effect of the above factors has contributed to the fast deterioration of acacia woodland coverage. To this end, all concerned body’s particularly local customary institutions, agricultural and police departments have to work in harmony on providing alternative off farm activities. Furthermore, the government induced sedentary agriculture was widely practiced along the river sides of all kebelles therefore, further study on sustainable usage of grazing and woodland forest is very mandatory.

Land Cover Change in Northern Botswana: The Influence of Climate, Fire, and Elephants on Semi-Arid Savanna Woodlands

Complex couplings and feedback among climate, fire, and herbivory drive short- and long-term patterns of land cover change (LCC) in savanna ecosystems. However, understanding of spatial and temporal LCC patterns in these environments is limited, particularly for semi-arid regions transitional between arid and more mesic climates. Here, we use post-classification analysis of Landsat TM (1990), ETM+ (2003), and OLI (2013) satellite imagery to classify and assess net and gross LCC for the Chobe District, a 21,000 km2 area encompassing urban, peri-urban, rural, communally-managed (Chobe Enclave), and protected land (Chobe National Park, CNP, and six protected forest reserves). We then evaluate spatiotemporal patterns of LCC in relation to precipitation, fire detections (MCD14M, 2001–2013) from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and dry season elephant (Loxodonta africana) aerial survey data (2003, 2006, 2012, 2013). Woodland cover declined over the study period by 1514 km2 (16.2% of initial class total), accompanied by expansion of shrubland (1305 km2, 15.7%) and grassland (265 km2, 20.3%). Net LCC differed importantly in protected areas, with higher woodland losses observed in forest reserves compared to the CNP. Loss of woodland was also higher in communally-managed land for the study period, despite gains from 2003–2013. Gross (class) changes were characterized by extensive exchange between woodland and shrubland during both time steps, and a large expansion of shrubland into grassland and bare ground from 2003–2013. MODIS active fire detections were highly variable from year to year and among the different protected areas, ranging from 1.8 fires*year−1/km2 in the Chobe Forest Reserve to 7.1 fires*year−1/km2 in the Kasane Forest Reserve Extension. Clustering and timing of dry season fires suggests that ignitions were predominately from anthropogenic sources. Annual fire count was significantly related to total annual rainfall (p = 0.009, adj. R2 = 0.50), with a 41% increase in average fire occurrence in years when rainfall exceeded long-term mean annual precipitation (MAP). Loss of woodland was significantly associated with fire in locations experiencing 15 or more ignitions during the period 2001–2013 (p = 0.024). Although elephant-mediated damage is often cited as a major cause of woodland degradation in northern Botswana, we observed little evidence of unsustainable pressure on woodlands from growing elephant populations. Our data indicate broad-scale LCC processes in semi-arid savannas in Southern Africa are strongly coupled to environmental and anthropogenic forcings. Increased seasonal variability is likely to have important effects on the distribution of savanna plant communities due to climate-fire feedbacks. Long-term monitoring of LCC in these ecosystems is essential to improving land use planning and management strategies that protect biodiversity, as well as traditional cultures and livelihoods under future climate change scenarios for Southern Africa.

Estimating aboveground woody biomass change in Kalahari woodland: combining field, radar, and optical data sets

ABSTRACTMaps that accurately quantify aboveground vegetation biomass (AGB) are essential for ecosystem monitoring and conservation. Throughout Namibia, four vegetation change processes are widespread, namely, deforestation, woodland degradation, the encroachment of the herbaceous and grassy layers by woody strata (woody thickening), and woodland regrowth. All of these vegetation change processes affect a range of key ecosystem services, yet their spatial and temporal dynamics and contributions to AGB change remain poorly understood. This study quantifies AGB associated with the different vegetation change processes over an 8-year period, for a region of Kalahari woodland savannah in northern Namibia. Using data from 101 forest inventory plots collected during two field campaigns (2014–2015), we model AGB as a function of the Advanced Land Observing Satellite Phased Array L-band synthetic aperture radar (PALSAR and PALSAR-2) and dry season Landsat vegetation index composites, for two periods (2007 and 2015). Differences in AGB between 2007 and 2015 were assessed and validated using independent data, and changes in AGB for the main vegetation processes are quantified for the whole study area (75,501 km2). We find that woodland degradation and woody thickening contributed a change in AGB of −14.3 and 2.5 Tg over 14% and 3.5% of the study area, respectively. Deforestation and regrowth contributed a smaller portion of AGB change, i.e. −1.9 and 0.2 Tg over 1.3% and 0.2% of the study area, respectively.

The ecological status of juniper woodlands in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, northern mountains of Oman

There are changes in the local distribution of the juniper, Juniperus seravschanica woodlands as a result of conflicts between biodiversity conservation and human activities in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Sultanate of Oman. Woodland degradation and poor regeneration of juniper trees are attributed to many factors. Four zones, each with 10 plots and each plot with an area of 10,000 sq m were studied in detail at different altitudes to evaluate the status of the juniper woodlands. Tree density, distribution, health status and seed germination were assessed. The stock density of J. seravschanica in the study localities was less when compared to the previous studies. Juniper appeared as continuous woodlands from Al Hajmata reservoir in Shanut at an altitude of 2168 m a.s.l. and continued with the increase in altitude. The population structures of J. seravschanica in the four zones were evaluated. The heights of trees were normally distributed in the four zones. There were significant differences in the heights of trees among the four zones. Trees in zone 1 were shorter than those in the in the other three zones. J. seravschanica trees are in good health condition in all four zones. Most produced a moderate amount of female and male cones. Regeneration is low as indicated by 65 seedlings (9%) recorded during the survey and 26 small young trees (14%). Seed germination was low with a maximum of 31%.

Charcoal supply chains from Mabalane to Maputo: Who benefits?

In urban centres of Mozambique, charcoal is the major energy source for cooking. Growing demand drives high wood extraction rates over increasing areas of miombo and mopane woodlands. Charcoal production can lead to changes in ecosystem service provision and woodland degradation while also significantly contributing to rural income and, possibly, poverty alleviation. As such, understanding charcoal production and trade has important implications for rural areas and for the sustainable development of woodland resources. Here, we investigate charcoal production and trade through empirical research conducted in Gaza Province, the main charcoal supply area for Maputo, Mozambique.We analyse the present structure of the main charcoal supply chains from Gaza province to Maputo and the profit distribution along them. Seven villages in the Mabalane district, Gaza, at different stages of engagement with the charcoal industry, were selected for investigation. We conducted household surveys and semi-structured interviews with key informants (village leaders, charcoal producers, licence holders, wholesalers, transporters and forest technicians), from May to October 2014.Our results highlight two main charcoal supply chains comprising four main actor groups a) Local small-scale operators producing charcoal on a small-scale with household labour, who sell to wholesalers b) Large-scale operators producing and commercialising large volumes of charcoal using migrant labour, who sell their own production to wholesalers. While charcoal production constitutes an important income source for rural households in Mabalane, under supply chain a) more than 90% of the monetary benefits do not reach local communities and remain with external agents. Two of the main factors impeding the generation of greater revenues at community level are: 1) bureaucratic burdens in obtaining charcoal commercialisation rights in the form of licences; and 2) weak institutional capacities for woodland resource governance.We conclude that access to markets and control over woodlands is key if local communities are to generate greater benefits from charcoal production while aiming at sustainable charcoal production. Strong local institutions for obtaining commercialisation rights and managing woodland resources have to be developed, while the restructuring of the licencing system in favour of small-scale producers and more rigorous control of the regulations could support this process.