Wooden Pillars Research Articles

중국 고대 판축기술의 변천양상

In this paper, we looked at the rammed earth technology used in the earthen ramparts in ancient China. So far, research related to the rammed earth in China has focused on the combination of pangoe(版塊) and individual traces such as woodboards, wooden pillars, horizontal woods, and strings, and there has been a lack of attempts to identify the rammed earth technology of the entire rampart of each remains. I examined the rammed earth pattern of the entire rampart through the examination of the rampart earth structures and rampart methods. As a result, China's ancient rammed earth technology appears when ramparts begin to be built on mid~downstream of the Yellow river in the late neolithic yangshao culture(仰韶文 化). In the literature records, it can be seen that in addition to rampart earth structures (corresponding to types A and C) that fix the wooden plates with wooden pillar called ‘jeong(楨)’and ‘gan(幹)’, Chinese ancient ramparts were built using various rampart earth structures. The rammed earth method also used various methods such as banggoe rammed earth(方塊 版築), bundan rammed earth(分段版築), yeonjeop rammed earth(連接版築), and if you look at the relationship with the rammed earth structure, you can see that each rammed earth method uses one or two types of rammed earth structures to build the rampart. In particular, the appearance of methods for connection of wood plates and supporting and fixing the wood plate by using horizontal wood has led to a change in the rammed earth structure as well as its methods too. In the meantime, archaeological investigations of ramparts in China have been conducted mainly in the midland areas, and the study of construction technology was not very detailed, so it is still difficult to specifically identify the transformation of rammed earth technology in other areas except mid~downstream of the Yellow river. In the future, if archaeological research and research continue to be accumulated and a lot of achievements, we hope that more advanced research will be conducted not only on the transformation of rammed earth technology in each region of China, but also on its relationship with Korea, and I hope that this paper will help us understand Korea's ancient rammed earth technology.

Wood identification and tree-ring chronology building of oak pillars excavated from submerged prehistoric settlement (3000 BC), Ropotamo River estuary, Black Sea

Eighty one well-preserved wooden pillars were found аs a result of underwater archaeological excavations of a submerged prehistoric settlement in the estuary of Ropotamo River, Black Sea. That provokes a scientific interest to identify wood materials.  The longest tree-ring chronologies have been used to build floating dendrochronology series. Anatomical features of xylem showed that 34 out of the 81 studied wooden pillars belong to genus Quercus. The remaining 47 pillars belong to a species of the genera Fraxinus, Acer, Ulmus and Platanus.  It has been found that 8 out of 34 oak pillars have a length of tree-ring series over 30 years. This was the reason to select them for dendrochronological studies. The length of the built floating master chronology for the oaks is 84 years. The lack of strong coherent signal between 34 single oak dendrochronological series can be explained with three different types of oak forest ecosystems, in the area of the Ropotamo River estuary. These forest ecosystems are as follows: oak high stand forests in Strandzha Mountain, oak coppice forests on the Black Sea coast plains and riparian ‘Longoz’ forests of Ropotamo River. The tree-ring series of these forest types have different tree-ring signatures. Based on the tree-ring analysis it can be assumed that the timber of the above-mentioned three types of oak ecosystems was used in the construction of the prehistoric settlement.  

What Artefacts may Reveal and Hide about Power? Insights from the Pillars at Ningalasaini Temple, Far West Nepal

This paper deals with a type of organisation found at the temple of the goddess Ningala Saini, in Dehi Mandu, Baitadi district, Far Western Nepal. The temple is located in a region where small independent kingdoms ruled by Chand Thakuri kings developed after the fall of the Khas Malla Empire (12-14th century), between the two antagonistic powers of Kumaon to its east, and of Doti, to its west. The temple of the goddess Ningala Saini stands as a neutral territory, ruled by lower-rank ritual kings, and it presents a complex arrangement of artefacts related to power. Supported by massive wooden pillars, carved with motifs, the temple is also surrounded by a forest of pillars or posts (kham, maul) of varying sizes, colours and shapes. The paper aims to explore the variety of signs that the different pillars found at Ningala Saini stand for, and what they may reveal, or purposely hide, of the local configuration of power.

Qiao borrow "shape" potential —— Building renovation design based on traditional dwellings in northern Guangxi

The northern Guangxi region has beautiful scenery, and its special landform type and the cultural characteristics of multi-ethnic settlement give birth to the traditional architectural culture with distinct regional characteristics. The traditional dry dwellings in northern Guangxi take advantage of the landscape through the wooden pillars, so that the building is no longer restricted by the foundation of the house, and forms settlements between the complex landscape. Through the analysis of the structure vocabulary, the relationship between the building monomer and the mountain and the layout of the building settlement, this paper explores the out the path of integrating the abstract landscape environment view into the concrete architectural design, in order to enlighten the modern activation of the traditional residential buildings in northern Guangxi.

GPR survey on underwater archaeological site: A case study at Jenipapo stilt village in the eastern Amazon region, Brazil

In this work we present and discuss the results of a pioneering Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey performed at the underwater archaeological stilt village called Jenipapo in the eastern Amazon region. Jenipapo stilt village is located on the Turiaçu River, Maranhão State, Northeast of Brazil. The region is known as the Maranhense wetland where settlements were built by indigenous populations that inhabited this region during the pre-colonial period (∼AD 1 – 1100). These settlements were built on the margin of rivers and lakes, being supported by wooden pillars, corresponding to prehistoric stilt houses. The objectives of this research are to refine the wooden pillars location at the Turiaçu River bottom and guide the search for underwater archaeological artifacts. A total of twelve GPR profiles were acquired with 270 MHz antennas using a rubber boat. The GPR results indicated clear signal reflection from the river bottom and several diffraction hyperbolas suspended over the river bottom related to the top of the wooden pillars. To support the interpretation of the results, a GPR numerical modeling was performed to simulate the diffraction hyperbolas suspended in the water related to the wooden pillars. The synthetic result presented a good agreement with real data. Finally, the location of several diffraction hyperbolas can guide the divers to find and collect archaeological artifacts around the underwater wooden pillars that are the best evidence of the stilt houses of indigenous settlements found in the eastern Amazon region. Several archaeological artifacts were found during previous work, including ceramic materials. The results of this research show the capability of the GPR method to map an underwater wooden pillar and increase the probability of finding archaeological artifacts on the river bottom, which contributes to improve the knowledge of the Amazonian archaeology in Brazil.

Doğu Karadeniz Halk Yapı Sanatından Bir Örnek: Polatlar Serenderi (Çamlıhemşin)

Serender (granary, store building) is one of the important buildings of the vernacular architectural products are not built anymore in Eastern Black Sea region. These are basically buildings consisting of a ambar (a breathable storage room; main space in serender) and a sofa (balcony area) on wooden pillars. These structures ensure that the food to be stored for a long time is kept in an airy place and out of reach of harmful animals. Especially in the ambar, wood masonry construction technique is widely used. In this study, one of these buildings, located 13 kilometers away from Çamlıhemşin, is reviewed. In order to place the traditional buildings on the ground in the region, a leveled area is generally prepared by digging with hand tools on the slope land and this floor is built with stone walls that form the foundation. Thus, the part of the building that comes into contact with the soil is made of stone, which is a moisture-resistant material. Especially in this part of the Eastern Black Sea region, it is common to build such a stone section under the serender building. This part of this structure, which was created by building a stone wall, was converted into a separate space and used as a guest room for those who came to the neighborhood from outside. Besides, the technique of placing serenders on a stone-built space that also serves as a foundation, which is a common practice especially in this part of the region, was also applied in this serender. Especially the arrangement of this place as a living space is one of the most typical features of this serender. At the present time, one of the typical example of these buildings which are in the process vanish from the surrounding of Rize province has been studied as a documentation work. In this context, it has been tried to determine in terms of the layout of space and structural features of this serender, and the ornamental elements that can be seen much more intensely in the form of chip carvings in some serenders in other parts of the region, but which are not found much in this serender. Keywords: Serender, traditional wooden building, chip carving ornament, Çamlıhemşin, Eastern Black Sea.

Identification of Tree Species and Extent of Material Deterioration of Wood Components in the Yangjia Courtyard Ancient Building

Abstract The identification of the tree species and the extent of material deterioration in the wooden components of the walkway of the first courtyard of the ancient Yangjia Courtyard were analyzed in this study using bright-field microscopy, polarized light, fluorescence, and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy methods. The results are as follows: (1) samples No. 1 and No. 2, and No. 4, No. 3, and No. 5 taken from the roots of the wooden pillars were identified as lace-bark pine wood (Pinus bungeana), poplar woods (Populus spp.), large-fruited elm wood (Ulmus macrocarpa), and spruce wood (Picea sp.), respectively on the basis of observation of anatomical structural characteristics and analysis of selection principle of “local selection” in ancient buildings. (2) The observation of polarization and fluorescence and the analysis of FTIR spectra showed that the brightness of crystalline cellulose birefringence reduced severely, and analysis of FTIR spectra showed that the absorption peaks representing cellulose and hemicellulose in the lace-bark pine and spruce wooden components disappeared or decreased. However, the polarization and fluorescence and the FTIR spectra of the poplar and elm wooden components showed that the brightness of the crystalline cellulose birefringence and the absorption peaks remained constant, as the controls did. (3) According to the results of the effects of the polarization and fluorescence effects and the FTIR spectra, we concluded that the lace-bark pine and spruce wooden components were severely attacked by brown rot fungi; in contrast, the wooden components of poplar and elm were not attacked by wood decay fungus, but were attacked by insects. These results provide scientific guidance for subsequent preventive conservation such as preservative treatment and insect prevention.

Post-restoration seismic performance assessment of a historic hypostyle mosque in Anatolia (13th century AD)

Assessment of structural performance under seismic effects is a very important step for restoration process of historic buildings that represent construction techniques and material characteristics of their era. This process consists of three stages namely, on-site examinations, restoration practices, and seismic analysis, and therefore, requires a multidisciplinary approach. Hypostyle structures are mostly timber-framed buildings with masonry walls on two or three facades. This construction method is a combination of Asia (wooden pillar) and Byzantine (masonry walls) techniques. The primary load-bearing system in these buildings is composed of multiple rows of wooden pillars. This paper presents post-restoration seismic assessment of a historic wooden hypostyle mosque complex constructed in 1273. This mosque complex is an important structure representing wooden hypostyle architecture in the Anatolia region of Turkey and is composed of three separate structures namely, a main mosque building, a minaret, and a tomb. Linear performance analysis, displacement-controlled nonlinear analysis, and kinematic limit analysis for failure mechanisms were conducted for the structures after the restoration. The linear performance analysis results indicated that the structures meet shear strength requirements for DD3 and DD2 earthquakes with recurrence periods of 72 and 475 years, respectively. Furthermore, according to the linear and non-linear analyses, the complex was found to satisfy performance limits for both ground motion levels in terms of inter-story drifts.

Real-Time Monitoring for Monolithic Movement of a Heritage Curtilage Using Wireless Sensor Networks

Since monolithic movement is considered a promising technology to relocate historical buildings, corresponding real-time monitoring is of great interest due to the buildings’ age and poor structural integrity. However, the related paperwork and practical applications are still limited. This paper describes a wireless sensor network (WSN)-based strategy as a non-invasive approach to monitor heritage curtilage during monolithic movement. The collected data show that the inclination of the curtilage is almost negligible. With the aid of finite element simulation, it was found that the crack displacement curves changed from −0.02 to 0.07 mm, which is affected by moving direction while the value is not enough to cause structural cracks. The deformation of the steel underpinning beam, which is used to reinforce masonry walls and wooden pillars, is obviously related to the stiffness in different directions. Additionally, the strain variations of the steel chassis, which bear the vertical loads from wooden pillars and masonry walls, are less than 0.04%. This indicates that they are kept within the elastic range during monolithic movement. This work has proved that the WSN-based approach has the potential to be applied as an effective route in real-time monitoring of the monolithic movement of an historic building.

About the building stones of the Eneolithic cromlech, sanctuary, and burial constructions near Shakhtar village (Dnipropetrovsk region, Ukraine)


 
 
 The article presents the results of petrographic research of building stone that was used for the construction of a cromlech, sanctuary, and the ceiling of the Eneolithic burials No. 20 – 22 from the kurgan No. 29 near Shakhtar village, Nikopol rayon, Dnipropetrovsk oblast. The purpose of this work was to establish a probable place for mining the stone blocks and rubble used in the construction. As a result of petrographic and X-ray fluorescence analysis, it was determined that the studied rocks can be divided into two groups, namely granitoids and limestones. The group of granitoids included tonalites, plagiogran- ites (trondhjemites), altered granite gneiss, and feldspar crystal from pegmatite. All the limestones were represented by spherical lay- ered aggregates, which most likely belong to oncoids – carbonate structures that form as a result of cyanobacteria growth. The studied samples from the materials of the cromlech and the sanctuary of burial No. 22 were represented by plagiogranitoids, pegmatoid granite, and limestones. The first of them served as the main material for the construction of the cromlech. Carbonate aggregates together with the granites were also used as a backfilling when installing wooden pillars of the cult complex associated with the burial. The plates covering the burials No. 20 and 21 were made of tonalites. All the studied granitoids are typical rocks for the area where the excavations took place. In the Middle Dnipro Area, plagiogranitoids are represented by the rocks of the Dnipropetrovskyi, Surskyi, Saksahanskyi, and Inhuletskyi complexes of the Archaean. Plagiogranitoids of the Dnipropetrovskyi complex are the most common in the studied area. They occur here in the middle and upper reaches of the Solona River and along the rivers of Bazavluk and Bazavluchok upstream the Sholokhove Reservoir. The closest to the excavation site are the occurrences of plagiogranitoids, which are exposed on the right bank of the Solona River, opposite the village of Shakhtar. In this area, pegmatoid granites are found in the form of veins that intersect plagiogranitoids. In the area of excavations, carbonate oncoids are found in the Sarmatian limestones of the Neogene. Most often they are found as the uncemented specimens that spilled out of the limestones. Today, such structures occur on both banks of the Kakhovske Reservoir, located south of the village Shakhtar. However, in ancient times there may have been closer outcrops of these rocks, as the Sarmatian limestone occurrences are common in the immediate vicinity of the excavation site, namely between the rivers Bazavluk and Solona, near their confluence, and the middle and upper reaches of the Chortomlyk River. As a result of the research, it is proved that in the valley of the river Solona during the Eneolithic, there began the active extraction of stone raw materials for mound construction, which was continued in later epochs, particularly, in the Scythian time.
 
 

Structural Behaviour of 13th and 14th Century Seljuk Mosques and Acculturation of Construction Knowledge

This study aims to demonstrate the acculturation of Seljuk architecture and construction techniques by tracing the development of peripheral walls in Seljuk wooden hypostyle mosques built in 13th and 14th centuries. To track the exchange of construction knowledge two Seljuk mosques (the Hanönü Mosque in Kastamonu and the Ahi Elvan Mosque in Ankara) are selected for comparison in this study. The main difference between the two mosques is their structural systems: one has a wooden peripheral wall and wooden skeleton system, while the other has a masonry peripheral wall and wooden pillars. In this study, a comparison of the structural systems and performances of these examples of wooden mosques exhibiting different wall systems was made together with structural analyses under basic loads. A series of structural analyses provides significant data about the structural behaviour of these types of structures, indicating acculturation of elements from Asia and Byzantium within Seljuk architecture and construction techniques.

Landscape characteristics of onion shed in Minami-Awaji city, Hyogo prefecture

An "onion shed" is a wall-less storage house with only a beam, roof, and frame, where harvested onions are bundled and hung to be dried and stored. Onion sheds were a common feature in Minami-Awaji city in the beginning of summer; however, due to challenges related to hanging onions, the number of sheds has declined. In this study, the spatial characteristics and actual usage of rapidly disappearing onion sheds were investigated to determine an effective way to continue their succession. As per the findings, the district housed 1,093 sheds of three alignments- “spread style (in farmland)” “spread style (in village)” and “lined up style.” And traditional sheds with tiled roofs and wooden pillars accounted for 17.9% of all onion sheds, which were inclined to be lost with farmland consolidation. Moreover, it became clear that livestock farmers and double-cropping farmers are working together in a small village.

Seismic evaluation of a renovated wooden hypostyle structure: A case study on a mosque designed with the combination of Asian and Byzantine styles in the Seljuk era (14th century AD)

Wooden hypostyle structures are primarily built using timber-framed construction types, surrounded by masonry walls on two or three facades. This construction technique is a combination of Asian (wooden frame) and Byzantine (masonry wall) techniques. The primary load-bearing system in these structures consists of multiple rows of wooden pillars. This paper focuses on the restoration of a historical wooden hypostyle mosque constructed in 1366. The mosque is a crucial example of wooden hypostyle tradition in the Anatolia region of Turkey. The study consists of four steps: field survey, lab tests, restoration practices, and seismic performance analyses for the examined structure. The on-site examination includes the visual inspection of material deterioration and the analyses of obtained samples from different places of the structure. Moreover, a building survey was carried out using three-dimensional laser scanning. Secondly, a laboratory study was performed using the samples gathered from the structure. The physical tests revealed that while the stone sample taken from the minaret had the highest porosity, the stone sample represents the west facade displayed the lowest porosity. Accordingly, the water absorption capacity of the stone sample taken from the west facade was the lowest. On the other hand, among samples, this stone sample had the highest wet and dry density. In the third step, the renovation process of the mosque considering its originality is presented. Lastly, the seismic performance level of the renovated structure is obtained using three analyses: linear, pushover, and kinematic approaches. Story drift ratios of the structure at the performance points for three earthquake ground motion levels meet the target performance requirements. Considering the realistic behavior of the material, the vulnerability of the main structure against the maximum credible earthquake is revealed in terms of tensile and shear stresses. The seismic vulnerability of the minaret is also determined in terms of both tensile and shear stresses and the story drifts ratios in both analysis types. We believe that the structural restoration processes presented in this paper to bring back a deteriorated historical mosque to its original form will provide a comprehensive approach to the literature.

​Study on Housing Management Practices Followed by Dairy Farmers in Northern Telangana State of India

Background: Adequate housing is essential for wellbeing and welfare of any kind of livestock, which keeps them comfort and healthy thereby increases production and reproduction performance by exploiting their fullest genetic potential. As scanty information available on farmers practices on animal housing, the present study was undertaken to assess housing management practices followed by dairy farmers in Northern Telangana state of India. Methods: Data were collected from randomly selected 240 dairy farmers from 24 villages of 8 mandals from 4 districts. A pretested semi-structured questionnaire in precise language was employed for collecting data through interview and face to face discussion with the dairy farmers duly avoiding ambiguous, dichotomous and non-variant items for proper interpretation. Result: Majority (59.58%) respondents kept animals in kutcha houses and 74.58% sheds located to nearby their dwellings. Majority (50.42%) of the sheds were in east-west direction and 82.08% of the respondents followed single line system of housing. Majority 91.25, 95.42, 84.16, 67.92 and 69.58% of the respondents protected animals against extreme weather conditions, maintained cleanliness, had earthen floor, backward slope in the floor and wooden pillars, respectively. Majority of animal houses had thatched roof (50.42%) and without walls (82.08%) and majority of them (89.58%) provided mangers but only 11.25% had pucca type mangers. Only a few respondents (14.58%) provided pucca drainage system and most of the farmers (58.75%) had manure pit adjacent to their animal houses. The study concludes that, the dairy farmers of the study area are well aware of advantages of keeping animals in hygienic animal houses under adverse tropical climatic conditions of the study area and providing them periodical trainings and visits to modern organised dairy farms helps them to optimize productivity from dairy animals.

Degradation Phenomena of Wooden Pillars in the Main Hall of the Fengguo Monastery, Yixian, Liaoning, China - Scientific Investigation with XRD, IC, and FTIR Analysis -

The Main Hall of the Fengguo monastery in Yixian county, Liaoning province, China, is the best preserved and largest wooden Buddhist structure, typical of the Liao dynasty style, in China. However, some degradation to the timber frame of the Main Hall has been noted, and this is causing concern in terms of the long-term preservation of the structure. In this study, wooden pillars showing the degradation phenomena of whitening, for areas in contact with the stone floor, and extensive surface damage at higher locations(mostly above 1 m) have been examined. Samples taken from wooden pillar surfaces were analyzed using X-ray powder diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR), ion chromatography, and pH measurements. With respect to the whitening phenomenon, we found inorganic calcium precipitates and oxalate ions, along with higher pH values. These symptoms indicated that chemical changes were taking place in response to alkaline conditions, suggesting that alkaline mixtures with calcium content in the foundations may be responsible. Regarding the upper surface-damaged areas, no valid evidence for chemical degradation was found using FTIR analysis, while damaged areas exhibited the presence of more bat guano-related materials than which were apparent in undamaged areas. The occurrence of this surface-damaged phenomenon has therefore been attributed to physical damage caused by bat activity over long periods of time.

A View from the Highlands: Archaeology and Settlement History of West Sumatra, Indonesia ed. by Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz

Reviewed by: A View from the Highlands: Archaeology and Settlement History of West Sumatra, Indonesia ed. by Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz John N. Miksic (bio) Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz, ed. A View from the Highlands: Archaeology and Settlement History of West Sumatra, Indonesia. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2020. 234+ pp. This book describes a search for a fourteenth-century palace in highland West Sumatra. Ancient palaces in Southeast Asia are elusive targets. They were imposing structures, but consisted mostly of wood and were vulnerable to fire, rot, and other forms of decay. At most, we may hope to find their ghosts in the form of soil discolorations (postholes), which are the remains of decayed wooden pillars that once supported such palaces. We are often forced to reconstruct them from written sources, which may be interpreted in different ways, or from artifacts supposedly left behind by palace dwellers. The volume under review describes the excavation of two historic sites and one prehistoric site at the southern edge of the Tanah Datar valley in 2011, 2012, and 2014 by a team of German, French, and Indonesian archaeologists. Those sites are at Bukit Gombak, Bukit Kincir, and Tanah Lua (in the Saruaso area on the north side of the Selo River). I have known Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz (editor and co-author of this report) and Dominik Bonatz (contributor) since 2003. I co-edited a book with them based on a conference held in Berlin in 2004 that assembled a large group of specialists on highland Sumatran anthropology, history, and archaeology.1 Tjoa-Bonatz kindly notes that my hypothesis that Bukit Gombak was the probable site of a fourteenth-century royal capital partially inspired the research described in this book (3).2 Moreover, I visited the site in 2012 when the excavation described in this book was in progress, I received an acknowledgement in the preface to this book (xxiii), and I am frequently acknowledged in the footnotes. Thus, I cannot claim to be an impartial observer. What I can do is comment on the significance of this research from my viewpoint as a specialist in the historical archaeology of Sumatra, and to illustrate the importance of this study of highland Sumatra for Southeast Asian studies. One of the first English descriptions of the Luak nan Tigo, or “Three Valleys” of the Minangkabau, was written by Sir T.S. Raffles in 1818 when he was governor of Bengkulu (Bencoolen), southwest Sumatra. He was aware of the court’s prestige among the Malay [End Page 111] kingdoms of Sumatra and was impressed by the dense population in the Pagarruyung area, which he estimated at a million people.3 In 1275 the east Javanese kingdom of Singasari imposed suzerainty over the Sumatran kingdom of Malayu Dharmaśraya. In the eleventh through twelfth centuries the capital of Malayu was probably in the lower Batanghari, but by the mid-thirteenth century it had moved a hundred miles upstream. The location of the king’s palace in the late-thirteenth century is marked by the base of a statue of a Buddhist deity found at Padang Roco (“Field of Statues”), on which a text was inscribed in 1286 stating that the statue had been brought from Java and erected at Dharmaśraya by Maharaja Kertanagara of Singhasari. Brick sanctuaries showing evidence of several phases of construction together with Chinese ceramics distributed along a seven-kilometer-long stretch of riverbank indicate that the area was inhabited between around 1250 and 1350.4 The precise location of the palace has not yet been established. One of the few people who left a substantial written record in Classical Southeast Asia lived in highland West Sumatra during the fourteenth century: Adityavarman. His biography can be reconstructed from inscriptions in Java and Sumatra, secondary sources, and chronicles.5 He was born in east Java, his mother may have been a Sumatran princess, and he may have gone to China on a diplomatic expedition in 1325. An inscription records that he sponsored work on a temple in east Java in 1343. He may have been deputed to Dharmaśraya as a viceroy of Majapahit in 1347. A Javanese poem written in 1365, Deśavarnana, listed...

Dacian Graffiti from Covasna – Cetatea Zânelor

Six graffiti from the time of the Dacian Kingdom were discovered at Covasna – Cetatea Zânelor (Fairies Fortress). Four vessels with graffiti can be associated with a building having the roof supported by three rows of wooden pillars. Two signs were made before firing and other four after burning, on good quality vessels, preserved in a fragmentary condition. The main issue is whether these graffiti are simple scratches or graphic signs.

“One”

The robustness of the One building as the main building of Sa’o traditional house in Ngada Regency, Flores, has been proven to be reliable. The experience and testimony of indigenous people proves that when there was a shock in the area due to the earthquake and tsunami, the human victims who lived in traditional houses were the least number. The most severe damage occurred when Sa’o was shaken violently, until the One building fell to the ground. The One building is located on a stage floor made of wooden beams with split bamboo floor coverings. The stage floor is supported by wooden pillars or megalithic stone pillars. Floor and ceiling construction are tightly integrated with wooden columns and plank walls. The construction of the One building use wooden pegs, interlocking board walls, without nails or screw bolts, and tied thatched roof coverings. Therefore, inspired by the One building is the Ngadha architectural identity I designed the “One” model as a space box rescue from the earthquake and tsunami disaster. The goal is that when the disaster occurs, each family could save themselves to the “One” box rescue, close tightly for several minutes to avoid accidents and security threats from more severe natural disasters. The “One” prototype model must be tested for its strength, patented, calculated the technical feasibility, collaborated with industry, the government, and the local government.

Spirits in a Material World

Abstract This article is about woodcarving and the role it plays in religion. It is an attempt to grapple with the idea of heritage as partnership — involving “persons in action,” that is between human and non-human persons — focusing on the work of an artist, Lepten, and the seven themed wooden pillars he and others carved in Mopungchuket village in Nagaland, India. It demonstrates, in this case, how heritage as a process opens up conversations between representing the past and the present in the religious grammar of Baptist Christianity and its relationship with materiality through the medium of wood. It also sheds light on the multiple meanings of heritage that are about openings and pathways for people to discuss how they experience memory and change, renewal and loss. It suggests that what is represented as the “past” in heritage is never dormant but is perpetually being animated through the relations that revise, form, and re-embed in new ways. In this sense, the problem of heritage and the different forms of mediation must take into account how carvings are viewed in Ao Naga society, drawing on both Christian and indigenous Naga concepts that continue to push where the boundaries of heritage as an idea and practice begin and where they end.

경산 임당 유적 출토 목제유물의 연대분석 및 수종분석에 따른 고기후환경 해석

It was estimated that the Imdang-dong site of Gyungsan was constructed in the 2nd to 4th century based on excavated layers and artifacts. This study was carried out to verify the result using the dendrochronological analysis of six wooden pillars excavated at the site. As a result, it was proven that 6 specimens were not cut at the same age because their tree-ring chronologies were not synchronized each other. And more, it was reconfirmed in wiggle matching dating as confirming two of them were dated to A.D. 94-135 and A.D. 224-289, respectively. It was coincided with the above-mentioned estimated age. In wood identification, most of them were identified as Hovenia dulcis Thunb., Tilia spp., Ulmus spp. which grow usually under cool environment. Based on the result, we could conclude that the climate at that time was cooler than the present.