Wooden Church Research Articles

To the issue of identifying multi-temporal complexes in urban cultural layer (based on excavations of Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral, Tobolsk Kremlin)

The paper describes archaeological complexes identified among materials of the excavations inside Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral in Tobolsk Kremlin. The archaeological works were imposed on the cape. The cape hosted the town, the Kremlin and, later, the residency of the highly placed clergyman. History of these processes is kept as records. It helps compare the processes with archaeological materials and distinguish multi-temporal complexes among them. The excavations revealed traces of an ancient settlement. The settlement dated back to the early Iron Age – early Middle Ages and had existed long before the town was established. The research apparently identifies the cultural layer dated the late 1500s – middle 1600s. This layer refers to the activities of the first Russian settlers in Siberia. The same period applies to discovered burials of the Orthodox Christian cemetery by the wooden Church of Our Savior. The researchers especially highlight layerings and objects from the construction of brick Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral (late 1600s). They reflect the beginning of stone construction in Siberia. In the excavations, the researchers discovered several brick tombs. These tombs were made for burying highly placed clergymen known by their names. The findings and multi-temporal complexes allow to describe main phases of Troitsky cape development. They also show how the status of this territory changed. The archaeological materials are a valuable source of information about the material culture, funeral rites, stone architecture of both the town and the whole vast Siberian region.

Impact of climatic-meteorological conditions on Polish wooden cultural heritage: an example of world heritage sites featuring wooden churches near Krakow

Poland has many wooden churches that require special protection under current climatic conditions. In this study, geographicl, land use, hydrological, climate, and meteorological data were collected for the area under investigation. Taking the six wooden churches near Krakow, a UNESCO World Heritage site, as examples, I qualitatively and quantitatively explored the impact of climatic conditions on the cultural heritage sites of Poland. Findings include the following: (i) the region is located at the headwaters of Polish rivers, with higher elevations making it less prone to major floods, thus reducing hydraulic impact on wooden churches; (ii) although the fire risk in the area of the wooden churches studied in this research is relatively low compared with that in Poland as a whole, the buffer zones of the wooden churches consist mainly of forests, grasslands, and farmland, with a low proportion of artificial surfaces and minimal human activity, leading to significant fire risks, notably, the Church of the Archangel Michael in Binarowa faces the greatest fire risk, with a fire weather index near 50%; (iii) under current climatic conditions, the relative humidity around the wooden churches typically exceeds safe levels for wooden structures year-round, only falling within protective ranges during the summer; (iv) on the basis of historical climate conditions over the past 40 years, the relative humidity in September and total annual precipitation in the study area show a significant increasing trend, indicating that the moisture protection pressure on the wooden churches in the area is expected to increase in the future. Finally, I offer specific guidelines for safeguarding and restoring Poland’s wooden churches, focusing on moisture control, insulation, and drainage. This study is expected to offer potential data and theoretical support for future related work.

EXTENDED MONITORING AS SUPPORT IN NUMERICAL MODELLING OF COMPLEX HISTORICAL TIMBER STRUCTURE

To support the conservation efforts regarding a wooden church in Domachowo, extensive research and design work was required to strengthen its weakened structure. A variety of data and analyses are necessary to make an accurate assessment, including obtaining a computational model, monitoring the behavior of the structure and its response to external forces and also performing strength analyses and verifying them with measurement data. For accurate geometric evaluation, static and dynamic measurements were required. A mathematical model and a flowchart of the necessary tasks were developed, along with the selection and installation of measuring devices. For this particular structure, static measurements were made using an automatic total station and dynamic measurements using tilt sensors. The purpose of the analysis was to correlate the inertia measurements with the absolute tachymetric observations related to reference points fixed outside the object in order to accurately assess the behavior of the object. Another important issue was to model the column element under study in such a way that its horizontal displacements could be determined from the measured inclinations. The obtained results indicated the need to strengthen the joints of the two main parts of the structure in order to minimize the impact of dynamic weather conditions. The paper describes the measurement process, the method of calculating displacements and the correlation of both types of data. Selected results confirming the conclusions are also presented.

Between Transcendental and National: Wooden Churches of Slovakia

ABSTRACT The Eastern Carpathian Mountain region is home to Slavic peoples, who celebrate the bringing of Christianity by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century. The mountainous region retains small village churches, some dating from the eighteenth century, each established within agrarian communities by Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Protestant, or Orthodox denominations. Despite village subjugation under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Nazi occupation, Russian “liberation” and Socialist-era suppression of non-Orthodox denominations, these exquisite vernacular structures have remained and illustrate the continuing transcendental experience for worshipers but also now shared with those who celebrate them as symbols of national resistance, as well as tourists who come to experience them as UNESCO World Heritage sites. Sharing a common church object, traditional typological and formal aesthetic approaches that have been established by researchers for these structures are contrasted against a phenomenologically rooted set of embodied modes for meaning across examples from extant structures within Slovakia. Embodied approaches provide, via modes of lived experience, a deep offering into what each church shares with their ecological landscape, village, and history; a holistic visceral tapestry key to their appreciation complimenting the typological and differently affirming their continuing value.

Churches and Monasteries in Northern Transylvania in Planning Documents and in Tourism Development Projects Financed by European Funds

Churches and Monasteries in Northern Transylvania in Planning Documents and in Tourism Development Projects Financed by European funds. In the present paper we studied the manner in which county and regional authorities from Northern Transylvania view churches and monasteries located in this area as tourist landmarks. In order to do that, we analyzed the county and regional policies and strategies and looked for projects addressing cultural heritage in the area that were financed by European programmes. While highlighting the diverse tourism potential of the religious buildings, the counties’ development strategies also recommended the preservation and rehabilitation of the historical monuments and promoting them in an integrated manner, as parts of cultural and/or religious routes. These objectives have been realized mostly with the help of the European funds – more than 40 churches were renovated and more than 80 have been promoted using REGIO and INTERREG funds, and wooden churches in Maramureș and Sălaj counties and medieval churches in Satu Mare County were included in thematic routes. Moreover, the creation and promotion of more cultural tourism routes is one of the main objectives of the Romania’s National Recovery and Resilience Plan, adding more value to the region’s tourism potential. Keywords: cultural heritage, tourist routes, European funds, churches, Northern Transylvania.

Architectural and planning features of wooden orthodox Churches of Bukovyna using the example of the assumption church, 2 Novoushytska street, Chernivtsi

Wooden churches are an important part of Ukraine's cultural heritage. A significant portion of them has been identified, included in the State Register, and thus is under state protection. It should also be noted that the wooden architecture sites of western Ukraine were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2013 (nomination "Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine"). A characteristic feature of the Moldavian-Bukovinian type churches is a plan in the shape of an Orthodox cross. They also feature a high and steep wooden tent roof. The plan consists of three parts: the narthex, the nave, and the altar part. Above each part is a spherical vault in the shape of a half-sphere. The walls are made of wooden beams. The length of the wooden beam’s ranges from 3 to 6 meters. The entrance to the church is always located on the south facade. The prototype of all wooden churches of this type is considered to be the wooden church of the Putna Skete from the 14th century. The architectural monument of national significance, the Assumption Wooden Church, is an outstanding example of folk architecture. The church has retained its authenticity and has been located at its historic site since 1876. Its architectural and planning features lie in the preservation of the traditions of medieval folk architecture of wooden Orthodox churches in Bukovina, serving as a unique authentic example for researchers and restoration scientists The article provides an analysis of the architectural and planning features of the wooden Assumption of the Virgin Mary Church, one of the four wooden churches of national architectural significance located in the city of Chernivtsi. The impact of historical, cultural, and social factors on its architecture is analyzed. Methods and approaches to the preservation and restoration of wooden churches are considered, particularly the use of modern 3D scanning technologies for recording the state of the object and creating its phantom model. The article is illustrated with architectural drawings: site plan, floor plan, and elevations, and provides photographic documentation of facade and interior fragments.

The Church of the Princely Era From the Chronicle Buzhesk: Localisation, Remains, Dating (based on the materials of archaeological research in 2015–2021)

During 2015–2021, the archaeological expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv explored the “Small” hillfort, a component of the Busk archaeological complex (the territory of the modern city of Busk, Lviv Oblast), which represents antiquities related to the history of Buzhesk. The discovery in 2015 and 2017–2018 of the horizon of the cemetery with burials typical for the Christian rite, as well as watered ceramic tiles, which were used to pave the floor of churches of the Princely era, prompted researchers to locate and study the sacred building. During the field seasons of 2019 and 2021, the remains of the temple had been found. Like most archaeologically discovered wooden temples, it was located behind a limestone-sand filling on which a ceramic mosaic floor was laid, two peripheral sections of which were discovered in situ. The collection of ceramic tiles (more than 1500 artefacts), covered with yellow, green and brown glaze, represents five groups by shape. As follows from the analogies, the tiles of groups I–III — large and small isosceles triangular and square ones — represent the background of the floor, IV — in the shape of an elongated trapezoid with rounded corners — the ornamental belt of the omphalos, V — samples of individual forms — its figurative composition. The tiles of the first three groups were made in split moulds, the fourth — in non-split forms, and the fifth — cut from a clay preform, on which an ornament was previously applied. In terms of chemical composition, the glaze of tiles from Busk is practically similar to the samples found from other locations (Danilyv, Dorogychyn, Kholm, Stolpje). It was made of a lead-silica mixture. The main dyes were lead (yellow), copper (green) and iron (brown) oxides. At the same time, a luminescent glow due to the addition of wood and bone ash (phosphorus) has been observed in bus glaze. The wooden church at the “Small” hillfort in Busk, built using the log technique, was most likely consisted of two parts (the nave is about 5 m wide and 6 m long, and the apse, according to the analogies from other places, is about 3 × 4 m) and had a small wooden dome. Stratigraphically, it appears that the church at the “Small” hillfort could have been built no earlier than the middle — second half of the 12th century. If we take into account the fact that by all its structural features it belongs to the traditions of the Galician architectural school, the time of its construction should be historically associated with the transition of Buzhesk to the power of the Galician princes in the early 1170s. It could stand on the outskirts of this ancient city somewhere before the turn of the 13th–14th centuries and collapsed either due to karst processes or due to a local fire.

Scanning, modelling and dissemination of the interior appearance of wooden historic churches in the Maramures region of Romania

In the Maramureș region of Romania there is a large number of historic wooden churches dating back to the 17th and 18th centuries. These objects of tangible cultural heritage continue to be exposed to degradation factors. Meanwhile, their interiors hide important and historically valuable artefacts of cultural heritage. Their loss would noticeably impoverish the heritage of local communities. This article presents the problems of 3D scanning the interiors of wooden historic churches, the scanning methodology specifically developed for this occasion, the equipment used and its parameters, and the results of its application. Four examples of wooden churches from the Maramureș region were studied: modern laser scanning technologies with appropriate selection of parameters permits a satisfactorily precise scan of the interior of a wooden religious building, even in difficult lighting conditions. The methodology and equipment choice was proven to be successful and is recommended here for future projects in the region and for structures facing similar challenges.

History of the Changes in the Roof Structure of a Historical Wooden Church

History of the Changes in the Roof Structure of a Historical Wooden Church

ВЛАСТИВОСТІ АРХІТЕКТУРНО-МІСТОБУДІВНОГО ТВОРЕННЯ СЕРЕДМІСТЬ У ОДНОЙМЕННИХ МІСТАХ ДЕРАЖНЕ І ДЕРАЖНЯ

The properties of the downtown architectural and town-planning creation in the historical cities of Derazhne and Derazhnya are considered. It has been found that in Derazhne the castle was located in the southern part of today's village, on a wedge ledge formed at the place where the stream flows into the Horyn River. The downtown stood northeast of the castle. Its territory had features of a regular rectangle, and the gates were located on the western and northern sides. Unfortunately, today it is difficult to determine the location of the wooden Roman Catholic church in the downtown, instead, the brick church of the beginning of the 19th century was built on the territory of the castle. It was established that the castle in Deraznya was rectangular in plan with two corner roundels located in the southern and northern corners of the western side. The indistinct fragments of the downtown ramparts preserved to this day, the configuration of the streets and the graphic image of the urban defense complex of Deraznya on the map of the mid-17th century by the military engineer Guiyaume Levasseur de Beauplan indicate that the northern and eastern parts of the fortifications of the city center had bastion-like protrusions, and the northeastern corner had a special fortification purpose . Rynok Square was located in the center of the downtown. A wooden church stood in its northeastern corner, and a brick Roman Catholic church in the southeastern corner. Relying on the determined properties of architectural and town-planning creation in the downtown of Derazhnye and Derazhnya settlements, we can record their equivalent historical and cultural value. The development vector of their cities was identical, but the architectural image was individual. The spatial composition of the connection between the castle and the city center, the abundance of temples and the fortification system differed. Instead, the street network in Derazne and Derazne was ordered, calculated and synchronized with two entrance gates. The current state of the downtown is unsatisfactory. In Derazhnya, Khmelnytskyi region, the street network, quarters with several houses of the 19th century, and castle ramparts have been partially preserved. The downtown of Derazne, Rivne Oblast, has preserved parts of historic streets, completely lost quarters, and faint traces of the castle. In both settlements, uncontrolled green spaces hinder the spatial perception of the historical center. Therefore, recommendations have been formulated for the return of service functions to the downtowns, their unification with the rest of the settlement territories, saturating them with new functions, and the reproduction of the traditional historical and urban landscape.

В. В. Верещагин и «изобретение» Севера в литературе и публицистике конца XIX–начала XX века (часть вторая)

The paper, based on the book “On the Northern Dvina. Through wooden churches”, considers the artist V.V. Vereshchagin’s perception of the North. It is shown that it is based on his professional and artistic interest in the monuments of traditional wooden architecture of the XVI-XVII centuries. The artist views the latter as a kind of classic – the pinnacle of Russian art, the personification of its tradition, destroyed or distorted by later stylistic experiments. Moreover, he even places them in a global cultural context, using very tendentious analogies based on his personal experience of acquaintance with the East. On the other hand, Vereshchagin is fully aware of and carefully records the ethnographic features of the Dvina area. Without dividing the North into regions or territories, perceiving it as a single nationally significant space, the artist resorts to subjective-emotional gradation as a means of differentiation: his assessment of the “quality” of a particular monument, settlement, or area is sometimes speculative, litereally depends on the mood. At the same time, the Vereshchagin text reveals key themes and motifs of the northern discourse of the 1890s-1910s, but otherwise articulated. Thus, the thesis that the North passed the peak of its development in the late Middle Ages is revealed through the interpretation of European and other borrowings in Russian architecture. The “remoteness” and “abandonment” of the region are shown as, on the one hand, the problem of “undermanagement”, inattention to the needs of the region, and on the other hand, a consequence of the weak infrastructure development of the northern provinces.

Cumulative climate-induced fatigue damage in wooden painted surfaces: The case of wooden churches in Sweden

Environmental variations of Temperature (T) and Relative Humidity (RH) in air cause a superficial and/or sub-surface deformation (shrinkage/swelling) of organic hygroscopic objects, as for example wood. These environmental variations may be due to the natural variability of climate, to the use of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems and to the presence of people. This contribution focuses on a group of wooden rural churches located in harsh climates in Sweden. The churches, which are still in use for the local communities, are heated during wintertime to reach acceptable indoor comfort levels causing potentially risky T and RH fluctuations for hygroscopic objects. In this framework, the main goal is assessing the risk of fracture on wooden structural elements caused by hygrothermal fluctuations. The method is based on a preliminary approach for reconstructing the climate history experienced by a typical wooden structural element of these churches and that, over time, results in a cyclic fatigue loading, naturally induced by the outdoor climate. Then, the effect of the artificial heating on the indoor microclimate and, therefore, on the reconstructed fatigue curve is assessed. Main outcomes were obtained by using a methodology that is preliminary based on simplifying assumptions, due to a severe lack of knowledge, in literature, about the fatigue behavior of wood. Finally, main considerations on the fatigue behavior of exposed wooden elements are drawn up, namely the estimation of their residual life (or “life-to-damage”), which may support conservators or church managers in better managing the microclimate to reduce the risk of fracture on valuable objects.

Wooden Church Architecture of Kargopol and the River Onega Areas in 17th–18th Centuries

The article is devoted to the analysis of the typological diversity and artistic and expressive means of wooden church architecture of Kargopol’ area in the 17th–18th centuries — one of the most interesting regions of the Russian North. An examination of the configurations of the roofing of the main volumes demonstrates the widespread existence of various types. The cube-shaped churches of Kargopol’ area represent a significant part of the monuments of this typological subspecies, also localized in the Lower Onega River and southern White Sea region. At the same time, in Kargopol’ area there is a concentration of temples with a wedge roof and a “barrel” top. The research of spatial solutions shows that the octagonal churches of Kargopol’ area stand out noticeably against the background of such universal and extra-regional compositions as “an octagonal structure on a quadrangle with a refectory” or cross-planned churches. Tower-shaped churches, like the six-walled bell towers of Kargopol’ area, can also be seen against the background of the fortification architecture in the Lower Onega River, which received a powerful impetus in the 17th century in connection with the construction of the Kargopol, Ust-Mosh and Turchasovsky forts. Kargopol refectories “with free communication” are also becoming a kind of local phenomenon. The main feature of the ensemble character of Kargopol architecture is the connection between the constituent elements with the help of porches, galleries and passages. Field surveys of monuments and the use of archival sources on the history of temple construction in Kargopol’ area testify to the colossal creative potential that was fully realized during the 17th–18th centuries in the picturesque variety of forms of both individual monuments and general ensemble solutions. No less important is the fact that the Kargopol’ tradition did not remain closed in itself; its spread to adjacent regions and interweaving with the architecture of the Lower Onega River and on the White Sea coasts scales up the architecture of Kargopol’ area and makes it one of the most striking and large phenomena in the wide panorama of wooden architecture monuments throughout the Russian North.

Endangered Religious Cultural Heritage

In the Carpathian region, there are numerous churches of different denominations built in different architectural styles, including masterpieces of wooden architecture, which are of particular interest from both a cognitive and pilgrimage perspective. The churches of wooden architecture in the Carpathian region are the subject of excursions and cognitive religious tourism, and some of them are included in the UNESCO heritage list. The paper aims to represent and interpret this religious heritage through the narration of places, understood as "topoi" endowed with distinctive identities. The religious heritage of wooden churches is in fact the identity expression of ethnic minorities; identity is substantiated in architecture through the use of particular construction techniques. Starting from the analysis of the heritage of wooden churches in the Carpathian region, the paper intends to propose innovative ways of multiple immersive narratives where the built religious heritage assumes the function of a tool capable of restoring the narrated reality and acting as a support for a hermeneutics of places. Constructing narratives of these places is very important for the preservation of the heritage of wooden churches, which today is experiencing many threats. In addition to bearing witness to local identity processes and conflicts and cooperation between different religions, they are able to increase the attractiveness of their territory and invite and guide visitors to come into contact with these places and establish an empathetic and reciprocal relationship with them.

Preliminary identification of a series of finds from the excavation site on the territory of the town of the first Kostroma Kremlin

In 2022, a series of finds characterising the early history of the city of Kostroma was revealed on the territory of the town of the first Kostroma Kremlin, in close proximity to the Volga River, where the groundwater level is particularly high (the so-called wet cultural layer). The excavation site identified the location of the wooden Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary with side chapels, which had first been mentioned in the Scribe’s Book of 1629, as well as the stockade separating the church territory with the necropolis from the Assumption Lane. The stockade, made of stakes dug in close to each other, was revealed literally two meters from the church, and immediately behind it is the wooden pavement of the pre-regular Assumption Lane. A medieval necropolis has been identified between the stockade and the church, on the church territory. Later, in 1783, a stone church of the same name was erected on the site of the wooden church. It is noteworthy that some finds also give an idea of how the funeral rites changed with the adoption of Christianity among the local population.

Two Complementary Approaches toward Geodetic Monitoring of a Historic Wooden Church to Inspect Its Static and Dynamic Behavior.

To support the conservation efforts regarding a wooden church in Domachowo, extensive research and design work was required to strengthen its weakened structure. A variety of data and analyses are necessary to make an accurate assessment, including obtaining a dimensional model, monitoring the behavior of the structure and its response to external forces, and also performing strength analyses and verifying them with measurement data. For accurate geometric evaluation, static and dynamic measurements were required. A mathematical model and a flowchart of the necessary tasks were developed, along with the selection and installation of measuring devices. For this particular structure, static measurements were made using an automatic total station, and dynamic measurements using tilt sensors. The purpose of the analysis was to correlate the inertia measurements with the absolute tachymetric observations related to reference points fixed outside the object in order to accurately assess the behavior of the object. Another important issue was to model the column element under study in such a way that its horizontal displacements could be determined from the measured inclinations. The obtained results indicated the need to strengthen the joints of the two main parts of the structure in order to minimize the impact of dynamic weather conditions. The paper describes the measurement process, the method of calculating displacements, and the correlation of both types of data. Selected results confirming the conclusions are also presented.

Acoustic characteristics of UNESCO listed wooden churches in Southern Poland: A comparative study between Orthodox and Catholic churches

The article provides a comprehensive comparative analysis of the acoustics of wooden Catholic and Orthodox churches in Poland, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage sites. Using data collected as part of the “Multisensory UNESCO” digitalization project, evaluation of acoustic parameters such as reverberation time, speech and music clarity and others in each church was provided. The findings reveal that Catholic churches exhibit more acoustic diversity than Orthodox ones, and the acoustic characteristics of these spaces reflect not only their physical attributes but also their cultural and liturgical contexts. The research underscores the importance of preserving these unique acoustic environments, which contribute significantly to the historical and cultural value of these churches.

A Study of Abandoned Ukrainian Wooden Churches in Poland. Current State and Conservation Recommendations

The paper summarises conservation research carried out on abandoned wooden Ukrainian Greek-Catholic churches from south-eastern Poland. As an example, two architectural objects remaining in complete ruin are discussed: the church in Babice and the church in Miękisz Stary. Both of them were erected in log construction and have rich interior polychrome. Conservation methodology was discussed, which must combine often contradictory challenges and aspects: both the need to stabilise the architectural body (which requires the replacement of a significant amount of historical substance) and the intention to preserve as much as possible the remains of the interior painting decoration (in the majority, polychrome was made directly on structural elements). The method of polychrome transfer was therefore discussed, which guarantees the preservation of the authentic character of the temples as well as their aesthetic and historical value. In addition, a detailed study of the remains of the iconostases of both temples (icons are currently stored in museum warehouses) and the issue of the possible restitution of the iconostases, along with a discussion of the necessary technical solutions for this procedure, are presented.

Conservation and Attribution of the Early 18th Century Icon “St. Apostle Philip” from the Bonevychi Village (Lviv Region, Ukraine) using the Technique of Separation of Easel Painting

The article studies the process of separation of the two layers of painting of the icon “St. Apostle Philip”, which is kept in the church in the Bonevychi village (Sambir district, Lviv region, Ukraine). The expediency of using the chemical method of separation for these work and similar ones, according to the state of preservation and technique of execution, is substantiated. The study shows that the upper layer of the icon was made in the late 19th – early 20th centuries in the technique of oil painting on top of the new gesso (levkas). The original painting of the icon was done in the technique of tempera with the use of silvering and engraving on the background. When studying the manner of painting of the original layer of the icon and based on archival documents about the church in Bonevychi, it was found that first image was painted in the early 18th century to the newly built in 1702 wooden church in Bonevychi. The manner of painting shows that the author of the original icon was a master from the center of church art in the town of Rybotychi (now a village in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship (Województwo podkarpackie) of Poland).

From church to museum and back again

In the small village of Kinnarumma in western Sweden an old wooden church was replaced by a new church buildning in the early twentieth century. The old church was de-sacralized by being moved to an open-air museum in Borås and used there for exhibitions and the storage of museum objects. The need for more church premises in the city led to the re-sacralization of the old church in 1930. The transition of Kinnarumma’s old wooden church to museum object, its museumification, was an expression of change in religious heritage, and its re-sacralization expressed an unchanged part of the same heritage.