Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Research Articles

Younger age and early puberty are associated with cognitive function decline in children with Cushing disease.

To investigate the effect of hypercortisolism on the developing brain we performed clinical, cognitive, and psychological evaluation of children with Cushing disease (CD) at diagnosis and 1 year after remission. Prospective study of 41 children with CD. Children completed diverse sets of cognitive measures before and 1 year after remission. Neuropsychological evaluation included the Wechsler Intelligence Scale, California Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test, the combined subset scores of Wide Range Achievement Test and Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery Test of Achievement, and the Behavioral Assessment System for Children. Comprehensive cognitive evaluations at baseline and 1 year following cure revealed significant decline mostly in nonverbal skills. Decrements occurred in most of the various indices that measure all aspects of cognitive function and younger age and early pubertal stage largely contributed to most of this decline. Results indicated that age at baseline was associated with positive regression weights for changes in scores for verbal, performance, and full intelligence quotient (IQ) scores and for subtests arithmetic, picture completion, coding, block design, scores; indicating that older age at baseline was associated with less of a deterioration in cognitive scores from pre- to posttreatment. Our findings suggest that chronic glucocorticoid excess and accompanying secondary hormonal imbalances followed by eucortisolemia have detrimental effects on cognitive function in the developing brain; younger age and pubertal stage are risk factors for increased vulnerability, while older adolescents have cognitive vulnerabilities like that of adult patients affected with CD.

A Systematic Literature Review of the Burden of Central Nervous System Complications for Patients with Sickle Cell Disease

INTRODUCTION: Sickle cell disease (SCD), a complex genetic blood disorder involving multicellular interactions between blood and endothelial cells, is often accompanied by central nervous system (CNS) complications. Effects range from silent cerebral infarct (SCI) to abnormal blood flow, and consequent overt stroke. This study assessed the humanistic and economic burden associated with CNS complications in patients with SCD and identified patient-reported outcome (PRO) instruments for future research. METHODS: MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL/CDSR and 11 congresses were searched to identify English language studies published from January 2000 to May 2020 and screened with predefined criteria by two independent researchers. Clinical trials (CT) or observational studies assessing humanistic burden, economic burden, or instruments used to measure burden in patients with SCD and CNS complications (N≥15) were included. Humanistic burden was broadly defined to include quality of life (QoL), symptoms and function. RESULTS: Of the 3194 articles identified, 34 were included. Study designs were 29% retrospective observational (10/34), 29% cross-sectional (10), 26% prospective (9), 9% randomized CT (3), and 6% systematic reviews (2). Study size varied widely (16-4,485 patients with SCD and CNS complications). 77% (26) focused on pediatric patients. Separately, 77% (26) were in a US setting. Overt stroke (12), stroke and SCI (11), or SCI only (7) were the most frequently described CNS complications. Twenty-five studies reported on humanistic burden, 18 of which measured cognitive function using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. A significant decrease was reported in full scale (FS) (stroke vs. no stroke: 73.5 vs. 84.7; P=.04), verbal (abnormal vs. normal MRI: 74.1 vs. 84.6; P=.02), and performance IQ (stroke vs. no stroke: 69.5 vs. 81.5; P=.02) for patients with overt strokes or SCI compared to non-stroke SCD controls. Greater impairment was reported for overt stroke compared with SCI (multivariate meta-analysis of mean IQ difference: -10.3; P=.0013). In addition to stroke/SCI, socio-environmental factors (i.e., family income level, lack of college education) were significantly associated with a decrease in IQ (P=.005 and P=.023, respectively). Five studies assessed motor function, reporting significantly impaired function for patients with stroke compared to non-stroke SCD controls (Purdue Pegboard both hands: 7.5 vs. 10.1; P=.0001). Among children with SCD who had experienced their first stroke, those receiving hydroxyurea (HU) for prevention of recurrent stroke had significantly less moderate to severe motor disability (physician assessed) than children not receiving HU (23.1 vs. 88.9%; P<.001). Nine studies reported economic outcomes related to healthcare resource use (HCRU) (8) and direct costs (5). HCRU and cost to manage CNS complications are high, with a median LOS of 5 days (IQR 3-9) and median hospitalization charges of $18,956 (2012 USD) for patients with SCD and stroke. Treatment costs were also substantial in patients with SCI, with annual transfusion plus chelation costs ranging between $18,149 and $67,361/year (2016 USD). No studies reported indirect costs. While many studies used clinician-administered performance outcome (PerfO) measures such as the Wechsler Scales, only 1 study employed a PRO instrument: the Children's Depression Index. In addition to the Wechsler Scales, PerfO measures of cognitive function included the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery (6 studies), Children's Memory Scale (4), and California Verbal Learning Test for Children (4). CONCLUSIONS: This systematic review found that SCD patients with CNS complications often experience diminished cognitive/motor function and incur substantial costs. In particular, the mean FSIQ for SCD patients with stroke and SCI was reported to be 'extremely low' to 'low' (65.9 to 83.6) and 'low' to 'average' (77.2 to 95.9), respectively across studies. The Wechsler Scales were the most commonly used PerfO measure of cognitive function, while use of disease-specific PRO instruments was extremely limited. Given that the majority of published data focuses on children, future research is needed to evaluate the burden of disease for SCD adults with CNS complications, and to assess patient perspectives and QoL to better quantify aspects of burden beyond cognitive performance. Disclosures Lee: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation: Current Employment. Nellesen:Analysis Group, Inc.: Consultancy. Lucas:Analysis Group, Inc.: Consultancy. Paulose:Novartis Pharma AG: Current Employment.

A Comparison of the Academic Achievement of Home School and Public School Students

<p>This study added to existing data on home school effectiveness by comparing the academic achievement of 66 home school students with 66 of their grade-level peers in traditional public schools. The two groups of students were matched on gender, race, and grade level and were administered the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery III. No significant difference in overall academic achievement was found between the groups. Both home school and public school students had average or above average scores in reading, math, written language, and broad knowledge (science, social studies, and humanities). The results further revealed a downward trend in math, reading and broad knowledge scores with increasing grade level. This trend suggests that home school and public school students experience a “developmental mismatch” between the changes that occur in adolescence and their school/home experiences, resulting in lower motivation, confidence, and academic performance.</p>

Growth in Reading Comprehension and Verbal Ability From Grades 1 Through 9

We systematically assessed the relationships between growth of four components of verbal ability—Information, Similarities, Vocabulary, and Comprehension subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale–Revised—and longitudinal growth from Grades 1 to 9 of the Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Passage Comprehension subtest while controlling for Word Identification and Word Attack, using multilevel growth models on a sample of 414 children. Growth was assessed over all grades (1-9), and separately for early grades (1-5) and later grades (5-9). Over all grades, growth in Word Identification had a substantial standardized loading to Passage Comprehension, and all four verbal abilities had smaller, but significant standardized loadings to Passage Comprehension ( p < .05), with Information and Vocabulary having slightly higher loadings than Similarities and Comprehension. For early grades, results were similar to the overall results, with the exception of Vocabulary, which had a nonsignificant loading to Passage Comprehension. For later grades, Word Identification again had the largest, but substantially smaller standardized loading on Passage Comprehension and standardized loadings of all four verbal abilities were statistically significant with Vocabulary and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Revised (WISC-R) Comprehension having appreciably higher loadings than in the previous analyses. Conversation- and interaction-based intervention and instruction in oral language in general, and vocabulary in particular throughout early childhood and continuing throughout the school years, combined with evidence-based instruction that systematically develops the skills of phonologic awareness, decoding, word reading, fluency, and comprehension in school, may provide a pathway to reducing the achievement gap in reading.

The g Factor and Cognitive Test Session Behavior

Data from the standardization sample of the Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Third Edition (WJ III) Cognitive standard battery and Test Session Observation Checklist items were analyzed to understand the relationship between g (general mental ability) and test session behavior (TSB; n = 5,769). Latent variable modeling methods were used to construct both the g and TSB factors, and measurement invariance of the two latent factors was tested across five age groupings (ages 6-8, 9-3, 14-19, 20-39, and 40+). Results indicated partial scalar invariance across age groups for both the g and TSB factors. Correlations between the g and TSB factors were moderately strong and statistically significant across all groups. Suggestions for future research that is most likely to advance theory development and scale development related to the relationship between g and TSB are discussed.

Deficit awareness and cognitive performance in individuals with acquired brain injury

Anosognosia is commonly reported after acquired brain injury (ABI) or stroke and often hinders an ABI survivor's ability to perceive the social consequences of their behavior and to modify it. This study concerned the question of whether awareness discrepancy scores could predict cognitive performance with a focus on the acquired brain injured (ABI) population. It was hypothesized that lack of awareness would predict performance on cognitive tasks. Archival data was assessed for a total of 21 patients; 10 learning disabled (LD) and 11 with a brain injury with each person having one "observer". Data consisted of patient and observer ratings on the Acquired Deficit Awareness Management System (ADAMS) profile, a 36-item survey that measured both patient self-report and observer assessment of awareness. These data yielded two discrepancy scores: deficit with awareness (DWA) and deficit without awareness (DWoA). The discrepancy scores were used to predict IQ scores from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, academic performance on the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery, memory functioning on the Wechsler Memory Scale, and a measure of fine motor skill. The DWoA measure correlated significantly with several cognitive variables and with finger tapping speed on the non-dominant hand. These correlations were not apparent in the LD group. Measures of lack of awareness predicted cognitive performance in the ABI population. Therapeutic interventions are discussed that address lack of awareness after ABI.

Measurement Models, Estimation, and the Study of Change

The study of change is based on the idea that the score or index at each measurement occasion has the same meaning and metric across time. In tests or scales with multiple items, such as those common in the social sciences, there are multiple ways to create such scores. Some options include using raw or sum scores (i.e., sum of item responses or linear transformation thereof), using Rasch-scaled scores provided by the test developers, fitting item response models to the observed item responses and estimating ability or aptitude, and jointly estimating the item response and growth models. We illustrate that this choice can have an impact on the substantive conclusions drawn from the change analysis using longitudinal data from the Applied Problems subtest of the Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery–Revised collected as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's Study of Early Child Care. Assumptions of the different measurement models, their benefits and limitations, and recommendations are discussed.

The Presence and Predictive Value of Astereognosis and Agraphesthesia in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease

Sensory and motor functions are good markers of neurocognitive decline due to their proximity and hierarchical relationship to high-order processes. The current study investigated if patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) differed from a healthy control group in two tactile perceptual processes: astereognosis and agraphesthesia. Analyses were also conducted to see if these tactile processes were predictive of higher-order cognitive functioning. Twenty-eight patients with AD (mean age = 75.86) were compared to 28 healthy control subjects (mean age = 76.38) and were administered the Dean-Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery and the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Revised. Results suggest the patients with AD demonstrated significantly higher levels of tactile disturbance and astereognosis while agraphesthesia was able to predict a substantial portion of the variance in 3/7 cognitive tests and 4/7 cognitive tests, respectively. This included measures of fluid reasoning, visual processing, crystallized language, short-term memory, and auditory processing. These results suggest that astereognosis and agraphesthesia may be good markers of the extent of cognitive impairment in AD and should be included in neuropsychological evaluations due to their functional importance.

How Home Enrichment Mediates the Relationship Between Maternal Education and Children's Achievement in Reading and Math

Research Findings: This article addresses the mediating role of early childhood home enrichment in the association between maternal education and academic achievement in the reading and math of 1,093 children aged 7 (Grade 1). Data were extracted from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development database. We used the bootstrapping procedure, a new method recently developed to assess multiple mediator effects simultaneously. Five potential mediating aspects of naturally occurring enriching home environments (HOME) were measured at 54 months of age: learning materials, learning stimulation, parental responsiveness, modeling of social maturity, and variety in experience. Gender differences in the mediating role of aspects of home enrichment were also examined for the letter–word reading and math subscales of the Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Revised. Results indicated that all 5 aspects of home enrichment mediated the association between maternal education and reading achievement, and 4 aspects of home enrichment mediated this association for math achievement. Some aspects of home enrichment were gender specific. Practice or Policy: Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Problems in Learning Mathematics: Comparison of Brunei Junior High School Students in Classes with and without Repeaters

The study compared the mathematical problems encountered by Brunei students in first year (Form 1 with no repeaters) and second year (Form 2 with many repeaters) of lower secondary school. Participants consisted of 67 Form 1s and 46 Form 2s. Results from the Wide Range Achievement Test and the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery indicated that the students had wide ranging difficulties in learning mathematics under the ongoing inclusive education and SPN21 curriculum reforms. Form 1 females significantly outperformed their male counterparts on both tests. A significant gender difference in performance among the Form 2s was obtained only on the Woodcock-Johnson test in favor of males. Overall, Form 1s significantly performed better than the Form 2s on both tests. Scores from Form 1s on the two tests correlated negatively and insignificantly whereas scores of Form 2s on the same instruments had a positive and significant relationship. Scores of the Form 1s and Form 2s on both tests were negatively related. Performance differences and error analyses of selected challenging items are discussed to inform and guide possible remedial interventions. Findings demonstrated that mere repetition of a class or grade was neither therapeutic nor advantageous unless factors that disable learning were identified and addressed. Key words:Mathematics; learning difficulties; assessment; errors; remediation.

Change in teachers' ratings of attention problems and subsequent change in academic achievement: a prospective analysis

Recent research has documented a link between attention problems at school entry and later academic achievement. Little is known about the association of change in attention problems during the early school years with subsequent change in academic achievement. A community-based cohort was followed up and assessed for attention problems at ages 6 and 11 (Teacher Report Form; TRF) and for academic achievement in math and reading at ages 11 and 17 (Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery). Complete data were available on 590 children (72% of the initial sample). Ordinary least squares regressions were used to estimate change in academic achievement from age 11 to age 17 in relation to change in TRF-attention problems from age 6 to age 11. Children's IQ and family factors were statistically controlled. Change in teachers' ratings of attention problems from age 6 to age 11 was negatively associated with change in math and reading from age 11 to age 17, controlling for children's IQ and family factors. Externalizing problems had no significant association with change in math or reading, when added to the multivariable model. Increases in teacher-rated attention problems from age 6 to age 11 were followed by declines in academic achievement from age 11 to age 17; decreases were followed by gains. The results underscore the need for research on the course of attention problems, the testing of interventions to address children's early attention problems and the evaluation of their effects on subsequent academic achievement.

Longitudinal models of developmental dynamics between reading and cognition from childhood to adolescence.

The authors applied linear dynamic models to longitudinal data to examine the dynamics of reading and cognition from 1st to 12th grade. They used longitudinal data (N=445) from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study (S. E. Shaywitz, B. A. Shaywitz, J. M. Fletcher, & M. D. Escobar, 1990) to map the dynamic interrelations of various scales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children--Revised (i.e., Full, Performance, and Verbal) and specific markers of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery--Revised reading cluster (i.e., Letter-Word ID, Decoding, and Comprehension). The results of these analyses indicate that (a) there is a positive dynamic relation between reading and cognition across the selected age range; (b) this dynamic relation is symbiotic, with positive influences in both directions; (c) the influence from cognition to reading is stronger when considering the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children Performance--Revised Performance scale and weaker with the Verbal scale; (d) when examining the different Reading subtests, the influences from cognition are more apparent for Letter-Word ID and Comprehension and are less perceptible for Decoding; and (e) the dynamics of reading and cognition appear to be of stronger magnitude during 1st to 3rd grade, less strong during 4th to 8th grade, and weaker from 9th to 12th grade.

Growth in early reading skills from kindergarten to third grade

We examined models of individual change and correlates of change in the growth of reading skills in a sample of 40 children from kindergarten through third grade. A broad range of correlates was examined and included family literacy, oral language, emergent reading, intelligence, spelling, and demographic variables. Individual growth curve analysis was used to model change in Letter Word Identification (LWID), Word Attack (WA), and Passage Comprehension (PC) subtests of the Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery – Revised. Third grade LWID was predicted uniquely by family literacy, phonological awareness, and emergent reading skills. Growth in LWID was predicted uniquely by emergent reading skills. Phonological awareness, spelling, and emergent reading were unique predictors of third grade WA, whereas family literacy and emergent reading skills uniquely predicted third grade PC. The general oral language factor defined by semantic and syntactic variables did not contribute significant unique variance in any of the models. Thus, the pattern of results extends the model of emergent-to-conventional literacy proposed by Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) to third grade and suggests that early contextual understandings necessary for competent reading (family literacy and emergent reading) become more influential as reading skills develop.

Development and Validation of a Process for Screening Referrals to Special Education

This article describes efforts to examine the validity of a screening process that provides objective data for multidisciplinary team meetings where consideration is being given to teacher referral of a student for assessment and possible placement in special education. In this study, the accuracy with which this process, called Problem Validation Screening (PVS), identified students needing an eligibility assessment was examined. All first and second grade students at a participating school were administered several screening instruments. Students who met screening criteria on any of the screening instruments, and/or who were referred by their teachers, were exposed to a more intensive package of assessment activities termed the “Criterion Assessment” along with two commonly used achievement tests (Iowa Test of Basic Skills and Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery—Revised). Predictive power estimates are reported for PVS to quantify the accuracy and utility of PVS as a screening device.

Executive functioning and theory of mind in children clinically referred for attention and behavior problems

The present study examined the interrelations of the theory of mind (ToM), executive functioning, and social problems in children referred to an outpatient clinic for attention and behavior problems. ToM tasks consisted of mistaken identity and contents tasks, two versions of unintended transfer tasks, and an emotional false-belief task. Attention problems were assessed using parent and teacher reports of behavior and child omission errors on the Continuous Performance Test (CPT). Auditory working memory was assessed using two subtests of the Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—Revised. Impulsivity was assessed using parent and teacher reports of behavior, the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), commission errors on the CPT, and Luria's Hand Game (LHG). Controlling for age, language, and socioeconomic status (SES), ToM was significantly related to aggregate scores for attention problems, memory, impulsivity, and an overall executive functioning aggregate of all three components. In addition, parent and teacher ratings of social problems were negatively related to both ToM and overall executive functioning. Executive functioning and ToM may be indicators of metacognitive deficits that underlie social problems in clinical samples of children with disruptive behavior and attention problems.

Clinical Importance of Parent Ratings of Everyday Cognitive Abilities in Children with Learning and Attention Problems

This study addressed two issues: first, whether parental reports contribute information over and above a standardized psychometric assessment, and second, whether parental reports of everyday cognitive functioning might be useful in distinguishing between children with reading disabilities (RD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and combined ADHD + RD. Parent-reported information on 159 children with learning or attention problems was obtained using a questionnaire called the Parent Ratings of Everyday Cognitive and Academic Abilities (PRECAA). Psychometric information used for comparison included the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery-Revised, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form, the Vocabulary and Block Design subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition, and the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration. The PRECAA was found to be sensitive to group differences between children with RD and children with ADHD and combined ADHD + RD. Its inclusion resulted in a significant increase in the number of children correctly classified compared to the use of psychometric measures alone. The PRECAA correctly classified more children (66%) than did the standard psychometric measures (50%). In fact, a very high percentage of children with ADHD (81%) were correctly classified using the PRECAA. These findings suggest that the PRECAA may be a useful aid to clinicians in the identification of children with learning and attention problems.

Three-Year Course of Learning Disorders in Special Education Students Classified as Behavioral Disorder

To investigate the 3-year course of learning disorders (LDs) and academic achievement in a sample of students with psychiatric disorders who were newly classified by the special education category of behavioral disorder (BD). The occurrence of four definitions for LD (both discrepancy and low achievement) based on the WISC-R and the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery was followed in 81 students with BD from the time of their enrollment in BD classes to their first reevaluation after 3 years. Odds ratios (ORs) were used to measure stability of LDs in these students. The prevalence of any LD was 64.2% at baseline and 61.7% at follow-up. Most of the 10 possible LD categories showed significant ORs, and the average OR was 21.9. At follow-up after 3 years, students both with and without LD at baseline had approximately the same achievement standard scores in reading and mathematics, but a significantly lower score for written language. Standard scores for the students without LD consistently were significantly higher than the scores for students with comorbid LD. LDs in this unique sample of students with psychiatric disorders remained common and generally stable over the first 3 years.

Oral Reading Fluency and Prediction of Reading Comprehension in African American and Caucasian Elementary School Children

This study examined the differential predictive bias of CBM in reading across African American and Caucasian students in Grades 2 through 5. Participants included 136 students who were administered CBM oral reading fluency passages and the Reading Comprehension subtest of the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery—Revised. A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that CBM neither over-or underpredicted reading comprehension skills controlling for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Results of this study suggest that CBM continues to appear to be a sensitive form of direct reading assessment in the local curriculum for both African American and Caucasian elementary-age students.

Psychometric data for teacher judgments regarding the learning behaviors of primary grade children

AbstractThe psychometric properties of the Classroom Performance Profile (CPP), a teacher rating scale, were investigated using primary grade children from economically at‐risk families. Students were rated as they progressed from kindergarten through third grade. The CPP demonstrated high internal consistency yielding Cronbach alpha coefficients for the total score of at least .96. CPP ratings were correlated with scores from the Woodcock‐Johnson Psycho‐Educational Battery–Revised: Tests of Achievement and the Social Skills Rating System–Teacher Form, Elementary Level. Results suggest that the CPP ratings were positively correlated with measures of academic achievement, academic competence, and social skills, and negatively correlated with problem behaviors. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Intimate culture of families in the early socialization of literacy.

The intimate family culture for early literacy socialization was documented for a socioculturally heterogeneous sample of 66 children enrolled in pre-kindergarten through third grade at public elementary schools in a large U.S. city. Parents were interviewed about 3 types of indexes of their family's intimate culture: the child's engagement in various literacy-related activities at home, the parents' orientation towards the significance of literacy for early child development, and the family's routines of dinnertime, reading aloud, and doing homework for school. Basic reading competencies were assessed with the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery--Tests of Achievement, Revised (1989). Multiple regression analysis found that a significant proportion of variance in the children's literacy development was predicted by each of the quantitative indexes of intimate family culture, leaving little or no additional variance that was due to family income or ethnicity.