Wood Taxa Research Articles

An Intrasite Analysis of Agricultural Economy at Early Islamic Caesarea Maritima, Israel

The archaeological site of Caesarea Maritima in modern-day Israel was an important coastal town in the Early Islamic period (c. 636–1100 CE). In this article, I analyze 15 samples of carbonized wood and non-wood macrobotanical remains recovered from two residential neighborhoods to investigate the production and consumption of agricultural plant products. The identified crop and wood taxa are typical for the Mediterranean coast. Wild seeds point to crop cultivation in the vicinity of the site. Plant remains were collected from discrete contexts and are interpreted with associated features and artifacts, revealing cereal processing debris across a series of rooms in a former warehouse. Such a socioeconomic shift in this building, from a storage area to a crop processing space, is detectable by combining this intrasite analysis with the diachronic research previously conducted at the site.

Using analytical pyrolysis and scanning electron microscopy to evaluate charcoal formation of four wood taxa from the caatinga of north-east Brazil

People in north-east Brazil mostly rely on fuelwood and charcoal for domestic energy consumption. Traditionally, four local wood taxa (Mimosa tenuiflora, Mimosa ophthalmocentra, Croton sonderianus and Cenostigma pyramidale) from the caatinga have been selected for this purpose. As the final quality of charcoal is directly related to the charring conditions, as well as the chemical composition of the raw materials and the behaviour of the lignocellulosic matrix during the charring process, the aim of this study was to investigate how far differences in these parameters exert a major control on the charcoal formation, in order to give a molecular insight as to why these particular wood species might be preferred for high-quality charcoal in the perspective of sustainable management and harvesting regimes.Pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the chemical composition and anatomical changes of the wood samples before and after charring experiments were carried out at 400 and 600 °C. The charring conditions were also reproduced in the controlled environment of the pyrolysis chamber and evolved gas analysis mass spectrometry (EGA-MS) was used for the first time to monitor the evolution of the thermal degradation products.The thermal behaviour of the wood components was different compared to other wood taxa for which comparable data are available. These differences were partially related to the particular nature of the carbohydrate-lignin interactions, to a relatively low level of lignin condensation, and to the substantial presence of gums or resins, which formed charred deposits. These characteristics, often neglected in charcoal analysis, imply that the wood components (especially cellulose) are released more slowly during the charring process, and this translates into the ability of these wood species to retain the main features of their anatomical structure even when exposed to high temperature for a relatively long time. The anatomical alterations observed, such as the loss of the middle lamella, the disappearance of the pit membranes, and the homogenisation of cell walls are ultimately in agreement with the formation of a particularly recalcitrant carbonaceous matrix upon charring at relatively low temperature (400 °C for 2 hours).This study presents the first molecular characterisation of these wood species and some methodological advancement on the use of EGA analysis using isothermal conditions is provided. The role of carbohydrate-lignin interactions and non-lignocellulosic wood components in charcoal production is discussed and the importance of combining chemical data and anatomical observations in wood research is underlined.

ANCIENT LOGBOATS IN LITHUANIA: NEW FINDS, WOOD TAXA AND CHRONOLOGY

ABSTRACTMore than 70 logboats are known in Lithuania and about half of them date before 1800 cal AD. This paper reviews these more ancient logboats, which were discovered in the beds of former or still existing lakes and rivers and present new radiocarbon (14C) dates and wood taxa identifications. Special attention is paid to the logboat found at Šventoji 58, which is at present the oldest 14C-dated (2895–2640 cal BC) logboat found East of the Baltic Sea. Most logboats from the pre-1800s period were 14C dated to medieval and early modern periods and they were made out of pine and oak wood. From a very scarce dataset available it seems that oak wood was introduced into logboat building by Neolithic people, who also brought new technologies in stone tool production. We also noted that 14C dating does not confirm the logboat typology suggested in earlier studies.

The wood species of the historic gala berlines of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence

Abstract The wood species of 18th- and 19th-century Italian historic berlines (gala carriages mainly made of wood) housed in the Palazzo Pitti museum in Florence were investigated using non-destructive techniques based on the use of portable digital microscopes. Overall, thirteen wood taxa were identified. Among those, walnut (Juglans regia) was the most abundant species in berlines commissioned by noblemen of high rank, such as kings, princes and grand dukes, whereas in the other carriages of lower lineage, the walnut was replaced by elm (Ulmus sp.) wood, a species commonly used for carriages. Some species were typically present in specific parts of the structures, such as elm and ash (Fraxinus sp.) in the transoms and struts of the undercarriage, oak (Quercus sp.) in the wheel's spokes, poplar (Populus sp.) in the seats, panels and mouldings of the body and European beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the light frames. Species found only occasionally, including chestnut (Castanea sativa), fir (Abies alba) and spruce (Picea abies), may have been introduced in occasions of restoration or substitution. The results also showed a preference for the use of local species, which is different from carriages in other European countries where exotic species were already used.

Interacting Controls of Pyrolysis Temperature and Plant Taxa on the Degradability of PyOM in Fire-Prone Northern Temperate Forest Soil

Tree taxa and pyrolysis temperature are the major controllers of the physicochemical properties of the resultant pyrogenic organic matter (PyOM) produced in fire-prone forests. However, we know little about how these controls determine the residence time of PyOM once introduced to soil. In this study, we tracked the fate of 13C-enriched red maple (RM) or jack pine (JP) wood and PyOM, produced over a range of temperatures (200, 300, 450, or 600 °C) added to soil from a northern temperate forest in Michigan, USA. Pyrolysis temperature was the main controller of PyOM-C mineralization rates, with mean residence times (MRT) ranging from ~4 to 450 years for both taxa. The PyOM-C mineralization rates for both taxa and the pyrolysis temperature correlated positively with PyOMw (leachable C content); however, the potential PyOMw contribution to net PyOM-C mineralization was lower for JP (14–65%) than RM (24–84%). The correlation between PyOMw and mineralization rate was strongest where carbonization and the thermochemical conversion of carbohydrates and non-lignin phenols was most pronounced during pyrolysis for each taxa (300 °C for JP and 450 °C for RM). Contrary to expectations, the addition of a labile C source, sucrose, to the soil did not enhance the decomposition of PyOM, indicating that soil microbes were not energy limited in the soil-PyOM system studied (regardless of pyrolysis temperature). Our results showed that while the first-order control on PyOM decomposition in this soil is pyrolysis temperature, wood taxa did affect PyOM-C MRT, likely in part due to differences in the amount of reactive water-soluble C present in PyOM.

The first radiometric Pleistocene dates for Aboriginal occupation at Weld Range, inland Mid West, Western Australia

We present the results of radiometric dating at Yalibirri Mindi Rockshelter located in the Weld Range, Mid West region, Western Australia. A sequence of three Pleistocene dates from charcoal found in association with flaked stone artefacts and with a basal date of 29,089 ± 132 years uncal. BP (D-AMS 009920) provides the first evidence for Pre-Last Glacial Maximum occupation of the inland Mid West. Sedimentological analyses strongly support the anthropogenic origin of the dated material. Despite hints that the occupation of this region probably dates back tens of thousands of years, until now there was no clear evidence for this. At the level of regional significance and as previously hypothesised, the greenstone ridges of the Mid West provide good potential for Pleistocene-aged rockshelter deposits and the possibility of researching crucial aspects of human adaptation to the western arid zone of Australia from ∼30,000 years ago including mobility, seasonality, technology, ochre use, selection of wood taxa for fire-making and intra- and inter-regional social networks.

The power of the pyre – A holistic study of cremation focusing on charcoal remains

The pyre was an integral part of the ritual of cremation, yet the actual wood that fuelled pyres has rarely been investigated from Bronze Age sites. This research examines environmental results focusing on charcoal data from the largest Bronze Age cremation cemetery discovered in Ireland, Templenoe. A holistic approach combines charcoal, plant macrofossil, osteological and artefactual results to provide new insights into the cremation process in prehistory. It demonstrates that particular trees (oak, pomaceous fruitwood and ash) were selected over 600 years to fuel the cremation pyres at Templenoe, trends which are reflected regionally in both Ireland and Britain. Comparison of charcoal with osteological data suggests that the selection of wood did not reflect age or sex. Pyre material was consistently buried with the cremated bones in graves indicating the importance of the pyre itself in the overall cremation process. Empty funerary pits or possible “cenotaphs” contain the exact same wood taxa as the graves with bone, suggesting that it may be correct to interpret these as graves. It is possible that pyre material could have been buried as a proxy for the body.

Forest exploitation for charcoal production and timber since the 12th century in an intact medieval mining site in the Niederpöbel Valley (Erzgebirge, Eastern Germany)

Historic mining activities are assumed to rank among the most significant human activities that reshaped the landscape of the European uplands, especially since the medieval period. Mining requires both the extraction of timber for mining construction as well as the production of charcoal for ore smelting. Analysing the occurrence of different wood taxa in construction or charcoal assemblages may help to shed light on the question of whether different taxa had been chosen for different purposes depending on their local availability, specific cost–benefit considerations or their physical properties.Here, we present the results of taxonomical and dendrochronological analyses performed on timber and macro-remains from an outstandingly well-preserved medieval underground mining complex in the Erzgebirge region (Ore Mountains, Eastern Germany). The complementary use of wood for charcoal production was reconstructed by anthracological and chronological analyses of medieval to modern charcoal kilns preserved in the same area. Dated colluvial layers served as additional indicators for phases of local soil erosion following forest clearances.The onset of mining activities in the late 12th century was contemporary with the start of charcoal production and soil erosion. While Abies alba was prevalent among the timbers from the main construction phase around AD 1270/1280, Fagus sylvatica was the most frequently occurring wood in the oldest charcoal kilns from the mid-13th century. The latter declined during the 13th century in favour of taxa like Betula, Corylus and Acer. Supported by the evidence of massive soil erosion, this may reflect changes in forest composition induced by highly intensive use or shifts of the areas used for wood exploitation. Whereas mining ceased in the area shortly after AD 1291, charcoal production continued during the 14th and 15th century and the rising proportion of Abies alba is discussed to be related to a lessened local demand of this species for timber. The rising share of Picea during the younger phases probably resulted from changes in selective forest exploitation rather than mirroring vegetation changes. After a hiatus, a last phase of charcoal production is identified to have occurred during the mid-16th century, again with a high share of Fagus sylvatica as fuel wood.

A new Late Cretaceous (late Campanian to early Maastrichtian) wood flora from southern Patagonia

The Cerro Fortaleza Formation, in southernmost Patagonia (Argentina), contains a unique Late Cretaceous (Campanian) flora and fauna. This formation is characterized by lithified fluvial sands, overbank mud deposits, and paleosols deposited in fluvial, fluvial–palustrine, and coastal plain environments from the northeastern margin of the Austral (Magellanes) Basin. The overlying and underlying formations have been dated as Campanian and Maastrichtian, respectively. Therefore, the Cerro Fortaleza Formation putatively falls within the late Campanian–Maastrichtian. This formation is known for its diverse fauna including dinosaurs, fishes, and turtles. Furthermore, poorly preserved leaf impressions from indeterminate conifers and cycads have also been discovered but not yet described.Fossil wood taxa from the Cerro Fortaleza Formation yields a diverse flora of gymnosperm wood but only two genera of angiosperm wood. Gymnosperm genera identified in this study include Agathoxylon, Planoxylon, Taxodioxylon, Cupressinoxylon, and Podocarpoxylon; and angiosperm genera identified include Hedycaryoxylon and Nothofagoxylon. This is the first record of Planoxylon, Taxodioxylon, Cupressinoxylon, and Hedycaryoxylon from Argentina. Additionally, this is the oldest occurrence of Nothofagoxylon in Argentina. Both the angiosperm and gymnosperm wood samples possess distinct growth rings, providing strong evidence for seasonal growth regimes in the region. All of the wood genera from the Cerro Fortaleza Formation, except Planoxylon, have also been described from Late Cretaceous sediments of the Antarctic Peninsula. Thus, the presence of these taxa in both regions supports Late Cretaceous plant dispersal between them. Despite sharing the same taxa, the floras from the Cerro Fortaleza Formation and the Antarctic Peninsula exhibit strikingly different relative abundances. The ratio of gymnosperm to angiosperm wood in the Cerro Fortaleza Formation is 75:25; whereas coeval floras from the Antarctic Peninsula are ~25:75. The floral differences between these locations may be a relict from a widespread older flora that included Antarctica, regional floristic variations or a result of different depositional and/or taphonomic controls in discrete paleoenvironments.

Woodland history in the upper Harz Mountains revealed by kiln site, soil sediment and peat charcoal analyses

Charcoal is abundant in various soils and soil sediments and is basically the result of either natural wildfires or of anthropogenic ignition. Compositions of charcoal assemblages are the result of several taphonomical processes. Beside this, little is known about the influence of charcoal from anthropogenic origin, like charcoal production sites (kiln sites) on soil charcoal assemblages. To elucidate how human charcoal production as well as erosion of the relicts of kiln sites influenced charcoal assemblages in soils and mires, a multi-proxy approach was applied at two transects on the Renneckenberg, a steep slope in the low mountain range Harz, Germany. On this slope, three types of archives (soil/soil sediments, kiln sites and peatland) were investigated each with different methods on a local scale (soil charcoal analyses, kiln site charcoal analyses, peat macro-/micro-charcoal and pollen analysis). The kiln site charcoal records are taxonomically richer in wood taxa than those from colluvial assemblages, especially regarding deciduous tree species. Fagus sylvatica and Acer sp. are rare or absent in the colluvial charcoal assemblages which are dominated by Picea charcoal. At the bottom of the slope, the soil charcoal concentration is very high and indicates strong erosion of charcoal from the upper part of the slope. Significant taxonomical discrepancies between the colluvial and the kiln site charcoal assemblages may be related to different fire intensity throughout the Holocene and to human woodland usage. Additionally, changes in the run-off intensity and fire frequency are detected in the peat macro-charcoal record reflecting vegetation change in the early Holocene. The micro-charcoal content coincides with the main mining phases in the late Holocene and the 9.2 k climatic anomaly.

Size matters: Preliminary results from an experimental approach to interpret Middle Stone Age hearths

This paper reports on ten fire experiments and their significance for interpreting hearths from the Middle Stone Age site, Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The experiments were conducted on four different substrata and four wood taxa were used in the experiments. Four of the experiments consisted of a single fire, while the other experiments consisted of multiple fires on top of each other. The experimental fires produced hearth areas of ∼962.1–∼1661.9 cm² and hearth depths of 3–12 cm. Hearth size and depth do not correlate. Hearth area seems to correlate with the fuel load used in a hearth, and it is argued that this can be used in interpretations of fire use at an archaeological site. Nine hearths from the same layer at Sibudu are used as examples, and it is argued that variation in hearth area indicates variation in hearth use. Some hearths at Sibudu were possibly only used once, whereas others represent long-term use and/or repeated reloading of the same hearth.

Miocene woods of the Janggi Basin in Korea: Implications for paleofloral changes

Eleven taxa of fossil woods — two gymnosperms and nine dicotyledons — were identified from 59 specimens collected from the Lower Coal-bearing Formation of the Janggi Group at Shinjeong-ri in Donghae-myeon, Pohang City, Gyeongsangbukdo, Korea. One new taxon, Fraxinus oligocenica, was discovered and identified for the first time in the Korean Peninsula. Along with the previous study, 25 Miocene wood taxa, in total, have been described from the Lower and Upper Coal-bearing formations of the Janggi Group. A considerable number of specimens of Wataria were collected in this study. Wataria is an extinct genus of the Sterculiaceae, and the determination of its true identity is an interesting paleobotanical subject. There may be a possibility that the quantity and diversity of Wataria spp. was greater in the Korean Peninsula than in the Japanese Archipelago. Thus, we suggested that the Miocene deposits in Pohang City would be better places for elucidating the real identity of Wataria than in Japan. Coalbearing formations in which fossil woods occur intervene between the Geumgwangdong Formation and the Duho Formation in which abundant fossil leaves occur. In the combined fossil-wood and fossil-leaf data from these formations, we found a transitiontype flora situated between the well-known Aniai-type and Daijimatype floras in Japan.

'Islands' in Holocene Forests: Implications for Forest Openness, Landscape Clearance and 'Culture-Steppe' Species

Human activity has undoubtedly had a major impact on Holocene forested ecosystems, with the concurrent expansion of plants and animals associated with cleared landscapes and pasture, also known as 'culture-steppe'. However, this anthropogenic perspective may have underestimated the contribution of autogenic disturbance (e.g. wind-throw, fire), or a mixture of autogenic and anthropogenic processes, within early Holocene forests. Entomologists have long argued that the north European primary forest was probably similar in structure to pasture woodland. This idea has received support from the conservation biologist Frans Vera, who has recently strongly argued that the role of large herbivores in maintaining open forests in the primeval landscapes of Europe has been seriously underestimated. This paper reviews this debate from a fossil invertebrate perspective and looks at several early Holocene insect assemblages. Although wood taxa are indeed important during this period, species typical of open areas and grassland and dung beetles, usually associated with the dung of grazing animals, are persistent presences in many early woodland faunas. We also suggest that fire and other natural disturbance agents appear to have played an important ecological role in some of these forests, maintaining open areas and creating open vegetation islands within these systems. More work, however, is required to ascertain the role of grazing animals, but we conclude that fossil insects have a significant contribution to make to this debate. This evidence has fundamental implications in terms of how the palaeoecological record is interpreted, particularly by environmental archaeologists and palaeoecologists who may be more interested in identifying human-environment interactions rather than the ecological processes which may be preserved within palaeoecological records.

Keystone coleopterans? Colonization by wood-feeding elmids of experimentally immersed woods in south-eastern Australia

Macroinvertebrates on immersed woods in streams in montane south-eastern Australia respond to differences in wood taxa, according to a 4-month colonization study of experimentally positioned sticks. Xylophagous elmids (Coleoptera : Elmidae) strongly preferred local native Eucalyptus over other types of wood including non-native softer timbers (Pinus and Alnus). Where gouging elmids were abundant (in native forest streams with native riparian vegetation), immersed Eucalyptus wood supported high abundances of other macroinvertebrates; in their absence (in open grassland streams), Eucalyptus supported few other macroinvertebrates. Macroinvertebrate-gouged channels were present disproportionately on Eucalyptus sticks relative to other wood species. It is proposed that xylophagous elmid beetles are the principal macroinvertebrate modifiers of wood in these south-eastern Australian streams, where their gouging of channels increases surface area, thereby facilitating colonization by other macroinvertebrates and wood-decaying microorganisms and fungi.

Man and vegetation in northern Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain), during the prehispanic period based on charcoal analyses

Changes in wood taxa used as fuel on the island of Tenerife from 250 B.C. to 1500 A.D. were studied, using charcoal analyses from three archaeological sites. These sites were occupied by “guanche” prehistoric peoples up to the conquest of the island by the king of Castille in 1496. It appears that the collection of wood by prehistoric people had not significantly altered the woody vegetation around the vicinity of the sites. The arrival of European settlers, however, brought new economic and cultural practices which were radically different from those of the prehistoric society.