Wood Resources Research Articles

Deconstruction and reuse: Return to true resource conservation and sustainability

AbstractThe deconstruction and salvage of excess buildings is a growing segment of American business. This approach, superior to traditional demolition and landfill, is the epitome of both the objectives of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and, more importantly, the sustainability principles that all Americans once knew. The wood resources that exist in the Army's excess wooden property inventory constitute the largest existing stand of old growth forests. The exploitation of these assets, and their subsequent reuse, will require a change in the current Army business paradigm. Such change will lead to a more sustainable Army based upon sound business and sustainability principles. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Six indicators of material cycles for describing society’s metabolism: application to wood resources in Japan

We estimated the material flows of wood resources during the period 1960–1999. By applying our six proposed indicators, we discussed the state of material cycling of wood resources. Through this analysis, we examined the utility and feasibility of the indicators: direct material input (DMI), use rate of recovered used products (URRUP), material use efficiency (MUE), material use time (MUT), recovery rate of used products (RRUP), and domestic processed output (DPO) for measuring the consumption of natural resources, recovery of used products (input side), recovery of by-products, reuse of used products, recovery of used products (output side), and the environmental load, respectively. We draw the following conclusions: (1) during 1960–1999, MUE (recovery of by-products) has been consistently high and both URRUP and RRUP (recovery of used products) have increased. However, DMI (the consumption of natural resources) and DPO (the environmental load) have not decreased. The recoveries of by-products and of used products have restrained the consumption of natural resources and the environmental load. However, they have not been able to reduce them; (2) MUE (recovery of by-products) is already relatively high. Therefore, the main goals in promoting material cycling in the future will be increase in MUT (reuse of used products), URRUP, and RRUP (recovery of used products). This is especially needed for used wood products. For wood products, MUT (reuse of used products) should be regarded as an important indicator as well as URRUP and RRUP (recovery of used products), because most wood products are durable. On the other hand, for paper products, URRUP and RRUP (recovery of used products) are more important than MUT (reuse of used products), because most paper products are used for short-term purposes; (3) the six indicators of material cycles are useful for analyzing the state of material cycles and discussing the future goals of material cycling. Among the practical problems in capturing material flows and calculating indicators, to capture the product stocks is most difficult to be solved.

Woody vegetation resource changes around selected settlement along aridity gradient in the Kalahari, Botswana

This paper investigated changes in economically important woody vegetation resources around seven settlements located along an aridity gradient in the Kalahari. Available data at different rainfall levels were analysed for different vegetation aspects. Total woody plant density and number of species at each site increased with increasing rainfall level, while individual species density differed at each site irrespective of rainfall, due to other factors, for example, land use as indicated by high stump densities around old and high population settlements. Drought resulted in high mortality of certain species, increasing availability of fuelwood resource in the form of dead wood. However, prolonged drought from climatic changes could result in browse shortage, a vital resource in the Kalahari. There was generally low wood resource availability throughout the studied gradient, without any distinct relation to rainfall, reflecting the influence of other factors such as soils, land use and natural variability.

Implications of changes in household stoves and fuel use in China

In recent decades China has pursued a number of national energy policies as integral components of its 5-year development plans including the unprecedented dissemination of several generations of fuel saving stoves in the majority of its rural populations. These programs, although designed for conservation of fuel wood resources and using deceptively simple technologies, have much wider impacts on both a national and a global level through their impacts on health and emission of pollutants that have warming consequences for the atmosphere. In the current manuscript we examine these implications using emissions data collected as part of a comprehensive evaluation of 28 typical stove/fuel technologies in common use. We illustrate that relative benefits of biomass and fossil fuels, and subsequently policies regarding promotion of different fuel types, are dependent on which products of incomplete combustion are considered. If one only considers gases included within the Kyoto protocol, the burning of renewably harvested biomass appears to have an advantage over kerosene or LPG as a large component of PIC emissions from inefficient biomass stoves are not included in the calculation. If, however, one considers a more comprehensive list of compounds that have direct or indirect effects on global warming, at best the burning of fuel wood when 100% renewably harvested has a similar GWC to these better quality fuels, and, under conditions experienced in many rural areas of the world, often considerably worse. Comprehensive evaluation would require all major radiative forcing agents to be considered, even though that presents considerable difficulties considering reported uncertainties of some global warming potentials. The stove types in this study demonstrated a wide range of emission factors. This offers an effective mechanism for achieving short-term reduction in emissions of health damaging pollutants, and also accomplishes the longer-term goal of reducing of greenhouse gas emissions. Not all the improved stoves resulted in benefits on all levels, however, and it is possible, therefore, to implement policies with the best intentions for alleviating the burden of collecting fuel, which may actually, result in increased exposure of the population to health damaging pollutants and increased global warming contributions. In addition, the difference between global warming commitments for renewable and non-renewable harvesting of biomass fuels was of such magnitude, especially compared to differences between stove types, that more detailed accounting of the renewable nature of the harvesting of biomass fuels is essential and has profound implications for global accounting of carbon emissions and credit through the clean development mechanism. Clearly, however, evaluation of biomass burning in residential stoves requires a more holistic, or full fuel cycle approach that considers both the production of the fuel wood, the burning of the fuel, sequestration of gases during the next growing season and the environmental degradation and shift in fuels that may occur due to mining of the resource.

Three level procurement of forest residues for power plant

This paper presents the methods used to establish a wood-fuel supply chain for coal-fired power plants taking into account wood resources, potential suppliers and financial, economic and environmental constraints. The first step is a quantitative and qualitative evaluation of forest residues around the power plants. At the next stage, the supply chain characteristics are analyzed. Finally, a combination of forest residue sources and supply chains is selected under the constraints of the multiple criteria of the energy producers. In the present case study, the conclusion of the analysis is that an optimal strategy includes three levels: one base level made up of large-scale loggers harvesting softwood from final cuts, one top level made up of medium-scale loggers mainly harvesting hardwoods, and a reserve level made up of small-scale loggers and farmers. Detailed characteristics of these levels are given.

Assessing the perceived utility of wood resources in a protected area of Western Tanzania

To identify factors associated with interest in gaining access to protected wood resources in western Tanzania, I collected demographic, socio-economic and wood-use data for 240 households in three villages bordering Katavi National Park. Interest in accessing the protected wood resources was not associated with fuelwood needs, and did not fall along ethnic or demographic lines. Instead, logistic regression analysis identified material and land wealth as variables that increase households' interest in accessing wood resources in the Park, whereas intent to move in the near future and the interaction of material and land wealth were negative influences. These results suggest that resource-use interests are largely dependent upon expected individual gains, which vary according to household needs and ability to process resources for potential local sale or trade. This study considers the importance of distinguishing between people's conservation attitudes and their interest(s) in using specific resources, emphasizing the need to recognize intra-community variation in use interests.

Successes and Failures in the Conservation of Wooden Structures

The year 2000 saw the publication of two major works on the conservation of wooden heritage resources. The first, by the British wood conservation expert Brian Ridout, entitled Timber Decay in Buildings focuses on the effects of attacks by fungi and insects and on the science and technology of the development of treatments and preventive measures.1 The second, by Norwegian specialists Knut Einar Larsen and Nils Marstein, entitled Conservation of Historic Timber Structures: An Ecological Approach focuses on the development of truly multi-disciplinary approaches to the holistic conservation of historic timber structures.2 Larsen's studies in Japan have enabled this extremely useful work to focus equally on the different conservation philosophies of East and West.3These two excellent studies prompted the author to develop this paper, which reviews the development of appropriate approaches to the conservation problems of wooden structures and outdoor monuments over the last 40 years. It focuses particularly on the sometimes extreme treatments that were developed in the 1960s to treat attacks by wood-destroying fungi and insects, and the residual problems associated with these treatments. The development of more environmentally-friendly conservation treatments and minimalist approaches are also examined. The paper discusses the development of structural conservation media and methods—particularly focussing on the WER (wood-epoxy-reinforcement) and Beta systems and variations on these themes.The examples examined in the paper are all from the author's practice and 40 years of international experience, and include cases from tropical environments, Russia, Canada, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the USA. The paper has been developed from one given by the author at the American Institute for Conservation Conference in Dallas in April 2001.

209 木質廃棄物の再資源化による木粉成形体の製造

To develop utilization technology of wood resources, production of new materials from wood powder was tried. It was confirmed that molding of wood powder was possible by using self-adhesion ability of wood without using adhesive. For improvement of strength performance of mold materials, a preparation method of wood powder was examined. Wood was broken down in various conditions of temperature and moisture content. Mold materials were produced only from wood powder under steam processing of high temperature and high pressure, and the strength performance was investigated. It was confirmed that improvement of strength performance of mold materials was possible by preparing wood powder in the state of high temperature and high moisture content.

Towards a general model of forest management through time: evidence from Australia, USA, and Canada

This paper proposes and tests a hypothesis that there is a general model of forest management through time that applies to varying extents in several countries. It does so by analyzing at a synoptic level, evidence from the histories of United States, Canadian and Australian forest histories and to a lesser extent global forest management histories. The hypothesized stages are (i) traditional hunter-gatherer society, (ii) exploitive colonization, settlement and commercialization, (iii) wood resource protection, (iv) multiple use management, and finally, (v) sustainable forest management or ecosystem management. The developmentalist model of change presented here reveals a striking similarity in the stages or eras that these countries experienced in the struggle to manage public forest estates. Changing community values and economic circumstances produced similar stages in several countries. The details of policies and legislation may differ, the terminology may be different, even some stages may be missing, but the trajectory of change remains similar.

Wood Resources and their Exploitation During the Iron Age Occupation of the Fens of Midden-Delfland, the Netherlands

This article presents the results of a study into the availability of construction wood and firewood for the occupants of the fens in the region now known as Midden-Delfland (province of Zuid-Holland in the Nether lands) in the years between approximately 400 and 200 Be. It was hitherto always assumed that the fens were treeless except for the odd alder, and that prehistoric building parties were therefore forced to fell trees that grew in stands on levees along the river Meuse and tribituaries which were situated outside the fens. But if so, why would the builders have returned to their settlements with only ash wood while those stands also included elm and maple - species which would nowadays be preferred to ash? Ash was used not only as construction wood, but also as firewood. It is generally assumed that firewood was gathered locally around settlements. This assumption does not agree well with the hypothesis just mentioned, that ash for construction wood could only be obtained from the levees a few hours travel distance. Dendrochronological analyses of posts and stakes of ash from excavated farmsteads show that this species in fact grew in the fens and that, during the occupation period discussed here, the stands were able to regenerate naturally without any active form of human woodland management.

Localized Wood Resource Depletion in Botswana: Towards a Demographic, Institutional and Cosmovisional Explanation

In sub-Saharan Africa, communal land resource utilization and management has reflected changes in sociocultural belief systems, population dynamics, and modes of societal administration and regulation. This paper, based on archival evidence, attempts to substantiate this assumption through an illustrative case study on biomass depletion around large settlements in Botswana. It also suggests that a revisit to certain traditional institutional and sociocultural practices on natural resource management might provide useful insights towards the sustainable utilization of wood resources.

Fungal and nematode threats to Australian forests and amenity trees from importation of wood and wood products1

A combination of geographical isolation and effective quarantine practices has excluded many serious pathogens of trees from Australia. The international trade in untreated wood and wood products, including dunnage, has increased the likelihood of the introduction of exotic pathogens and decay fungi and their becoming established and deleteriously affecting the current relatively healthy status of Australia's native and plantation forests, and amenity trees. Forest pathogens such as Heterobasidion annosum, Fusarium circinatum, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, Puccinia psidii, and Phellinus pini are considered serious threats to plantation forests in Australia. The potential impact, if the more serious exotic pathogens of forests were to be introduced, would not only be the loss of a few seasons' crops, but also the loss of decades of effort and investment in plantations, as well as irreparable damage to the native biota and wood resources. Effective quarantine policies and procedures are necessary to prevent the entry of these pathogens into Australia.Key words: quarantine, wood, fungal pathogens, nematodes, risk.

A Development of Web Site for Educational Resources of Wood Working Activities in Special Education

A Development of Web Site for Educational Resources of Wood Working Activities in Special Education

A Strategic Assessment of the Potential for Hardwood and Softwood Plantations in NSW

Forest plantations can provide an important wood resource for regional industries as well as other benefits such as salinity abatement, land rehabilitation, biomass production and carbon sequestration. A strategic plantation capability and suitability assessment was undertaken for New South Wales to determine the potential of regions to support hardwood and softwood plantations for a range of purposes. The plantation capability assessment used the Physiological Principles for Predicting Growth (3-PG) model to simulate potential tree growth in plantations and the land suitability assessment identified cleared private land that is potentially suitable for plantation establishment. The study concluded that there is land within NSW regions that is suitable for plantations and capable of growing trees in plantations for a range of purposes. In addition to the outputs of this biophysically based plantation capability and suitability assessment, strategic regional planning also needs to consider the potential economic returns, social concerns, environmental issues and other relevant factors.

Impact of single species tree plantations on nutrient cycling in West Africa

SUMMARY This paper evaluates the impact of plantation monocultures of fast-growing exotic species and indigenous tree species on nutrient cycling in West Africa. The rates of nutrient uptake and recycling to the soil vary with tree species and ecological zones. In general, single species tree plantations immobilize soil nutrients faster and return less nutrients to the soil than native forest and savanna vegetation. Hence, they deplete soil nutrients. Plantations of an indigenous species, Terminalia ivorensis, exert less deleterious effects on soil nutrient status than exotics such as teak and gmelina. Owing to their effects in destabilising the nutrient cycle in forest and savanna ecosystems, the plantation monocultures of fast-growing tree species are not likely to be sustainable in the long term. The widespread adoption of plantation forestry as an alternative to the natural regeneration of native forests as a strategy for increasing the wood resources of humid tropics is, therefore, indicative of an uncritical acceptance of the view that monocultural tree plantations are sustainable. There is need for caution in the rush to convert native ecosystems, especially rain forests, into plantations of fast-growing exotic trees.

Forecasting wood resources on the basis of national forest inventory data. Application to Pinus pinaster Ait. in southwestern France

The objective of this paper is to propose a method for simulating and predicting the evolution of wood resources in the 'Lan- des de Gascogne' region. Lemoine's growth and yield model has been successfully utilized to predict future timber resources from exis- ting data collected in two successive surveys (1977 and 1988) conducted by the National Forest Inventory (NFI). Lemoine's model was calibrated by analysing the error in estimation of stand features between the NFI plots and experimental plots originally used to built Le- moine's model. The proposed corrected term is based on the best linear unbiased predictor of the error. The calibrated model exhibited a better accuracy than the original model version. We suggest that coupling the calibrated Lemoine's model with NFI data is a useful me- thod for predicting timber resources at a regional level. wood resource / national forest inventory / growth model / model calibration / maritime pine

The use of fire in the environmental rehabilitation on the sites of a former refugee camp at Benaco, Tanzania

The enormous wood requirements of about 450 000 Rwandan refugees in northwestern Tanzania led to the depletion of the wood resources in the surrounding savannas in an area of about 500 km2. The natural regeneration of the woody plants was endangered by frequent fierce late dry-season fires. Since total fire exclusion of the vast area was not feasible, early-burning was prescribed which is less destructive to woody regeneration than the hotter late burns and which prevents the more destructive late dry-season fires. The techniques of controlled burning are explained.

Role of supply chain management in the wise use of wood resources

Synopsis One of the cornerstones ofsustainable forestry is the wise use ofwoodresources to achieve maximum value or benefit for society, while not jeopardizing the future. At the same time forest companies must compete on an international scale, otherwise they themselves risk becoming non-sustainable. Supply chain management (SCM)is a business management approach which strives to achieve the wise use of inputs, while ensuring the health of a company in tough international competition, through breaking down barriers of communication and information flow within and between organizations and companies. In SCMthe decision focus is the entire supply chain stretching from the raw materials, right through to final consumption. In this way sub-optimization oflower-level operations and processes does not put the overall objectives ofthe organization at risk or limit future opportunities. The concept ofSCMis not new and is also known, for example, as logistical management, total system costing, holistic approach an...

A General Equilibrium Analysis of the Economic Aspects of the Imposition of an Export Tax on the Plywood Sector in Indonesia

Computable general equilibrium (CGE) models are extensively used to simulate the economic impact of forest policies. In this study, we conduct a counterfactual analysis to assess the impact of an export tax ranging from 5 to 20% on the plywood sector to the Indonesian economy. The indonesian economy is aggregated into 5 sectors: 2 sectors are related to forest,i.e., (1) log, and (2) plywood. The other three sectors are not related to forest,i.e., (3) non-wood manufacturing, (4) agriculture, quarrying, and services, and (5) construction. The simulation results show that an export tax on the plywood processing sector is negatively correlated with real GDP and labor demand in log and plywood sectors, but is positively correlated with total labor demand, government revenue, income distribution, wood resources and social welfare. Reduction in labor demand by log and plywood sectors, due to a plywood export tax, can be absorbed in other sectors. The simulated policy of an export tax on plywood can reserve trees in production forests for future use.

VALUING MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN SOUTHERN THAILAND

Mangroves are ecologically important coastal wetland systems that are under severe threat globally. In Thailand, the main cause of mangrove conversion is shrimp farming, which is a major source of export income for the country. However, local communities benefit from many direct and indirect uses of mangrove ecosystems and may have a strong incentive to protect these areas, which puts them into direct confrontation with shrimp farm operators and, by proxy, government authorities. The article examines whether or not the full conversion of mangroves into commercial shrimp farms is worthwhile once the key environmental impacts are taken into account. The estimated economic value of mangrove forests to a local community is in the range of $27,264‐$35,921 per hectare. This estimate includes the value to local communities of direct use of wood and other resources collected from the mangroves as well as additional external benefits in terms of off‐shore fishery linkages and coastline protection from shrimp farms. The results indicate that, although shrimp farming creates enormous private benefits, it is not so economically viable once the externalities generated by mangrove destruction and water pollution are included. There is also an incentive for local communities to protect mangroves, which in turn implies that the rights of local people to guard and protect this resource should be formally recognized and enforced by law.