Wood Extractive Content Research Articles

KETAHANAN ALAMI KAYU HIBRID AKASIA (Acacia mangium × A. auriculiformis) TERHADAP SERANGAN RAYAP KAYU KERING (Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light.)

Development of Acacia hybrid is important to be done due to their superiority such as high productivity, good wood quality, more tolerance to pest/disease and adaptive to marginal sites, although its wood durability to wood-destroyer organism attacks is still unknown yet. This study aimed to observe the wood natural durability of Acacia hybrid to drywood termites (Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light.) attack. The wood samples used were taken from 6 years old trees of Acacia hybrid in Wonogiri, Central Java. The experimental design used is completely randomized design using two factors, axial and radial of wood section with the number of trees as replication.Parameters measured were extractive content, termite mortality and wood mass loss.The results showed that the axial section of wood significantly affected the wood extractive content at the level of 0.01, while termite mortality and the mass loss of wood were not significantly affected by the wood section. The largest average percentages of termite mortality and mass loss of wood found on the middle of wood section (96.67%) and near the bark (1.14%) respectively. Based on this result, the Acacia hybrid wood is categorized as very durable wood and potential to be developed as raw material for solid wood-based industries

VARIABILITAS KUALITAS KAYU MAHANG (Macaranga hypoleuca) DARI KALIMANTAN TENGAH (Variability of Macaranga hypoleuca Timber Quality From Central Kalimantan)

ABSTRACTMahang (Macaranga hypoleuca) is one of some lesser know species that widely grow at the secondary forest, especially in Central Kalimantan. This research was aimed to determine the properties of mahang timber quality and the relationship between axial and radial position concerning its properties. Research method using the factorial complete random design (CRD) 3 x 2. The first factor is the axial wood position (a) consist of the bottom (a1), the middle (a2), and the top (a3). The second factor is radial position (b) consist of axial (b1), and radial (b2). Data analysis using honestly significant difference (HSD). The wood’s water content test using ISO 3130 – 1975 (E) standart, the wood density test using ISO 3131 – 1975 (E) standart, and the wood shrinkage test using ISO/DIS 4469. The cell proportion test using grid mask method of Image Pro Plus V 4.5 program, whereas its dimension test using Image Pro Plus V 4.5 program. The wood extractive content test using ASTM D.2016-65, (ASTM D.1107-56), and (ASTM D.1110-56) procedures. Research result showed that wet vapor is 44.43%, dry vapor is 13.46%, specific gravity is 0.36, and the shrinkage TR ratio is 1.76. About fiber dimension: the fiber length is 1.6 mm, fiber diameter is 18.5µ, lumen diameter is 15.2 µ and thick of cell wall is 3.3 µ. The proportion of wood cell: spokes cell is 10.5%, parenkim is 11.3%, vessel cell is 16.5% and fiber is 62.1%. There is a relationship between several adhessiveness characteristics and wood quality toward the influences of the mahang wood’s actial and radial positions.Keywords: axial, Macaranga hypoleuca, radial, wood quality

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EUCALYPTUS CLONES WOOD FOR PULP PRODUCTION

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the environmental effect on the wood chemical composition of Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla clones for pulp production. Seven clones of 6.5 years old were evaluated. The clones were planted in two growing sites, Nova Almeida - Espirito Santo and Posto da Mata - Bahia, established in 3 x 3 m spacing. Five trees were selected from each clone and discs were removed from five different positions equidistant from the trunk and at diameter at breast height (DBH) height. Two wedge from opposite sides were obtained from the discs. A chemical analysis was performed with a sample composed of all the wedges of each tree in order to determine extractive contents, lignin, holocellulose, carbohydrates and the ratio among syringyl (S) and guaiacyl (G) lignin substructures (S/G) per tree. The S/G ratio was considered to be the most stable characteristic to environmental change, followed by the holloceluloose content, which was considered the second least characteristic influenced by the growth site. Most of the studied clones presented a statistical difference between the growing site for the wood extractive content, in contrast to the total carbohydrates content that was highlighted by presenting values which were little influenced by the genetic material and the growth site.

New Insights on Wood Dimensional Stability Influenced by Secondary Metabolites: The Case of a Fast-Growing Tropical Species Bagassa guianensis Aubl.

Challenging evaluation of tropical forest biodiversity requires the reporting of taxonomic diversity but also the systematic characterization of wood properties in order to discover new promising species for timber industry. Among wood properties, the dimensional stability is regarded as a major technological characteristic to validate whether a wood species is adapted to commercial uses. Cell structure and organization are known to influence the drying shrinkage making wood density and microfibrils angle markers of choice to predict wood dimensional stability. On the contrary the role of wood extractive content remains unclear. This work focuses on the fast-growing tropical species Bagassa guianensis and we report herein a correlation between heartwood drying shrinkage and extractive content. Chemical extractions and shrinkage experiments were performed on separate wood twin samples to better evaluate correctly how secondary metabolites influence the wood shrinkage behaviour. Extractive content were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed using HPLC and NMR spectroscopy. We found that B guianensis heartwood has a homogeneous low shrinkage along its radius that could not be explained only by its basic density. In fact the low drying shrinkage is correlated to the high extractive content and a corrected model to improve the prediction of wood dimensional stability is presented. Additionally NMR experiments conducted on sapwood and heartwood extracts demonstrate that secondary metabolites biosynthesis occurs in sapwood thus revealing B. guianensis as a Juglans-Type heartwood formation. This work demonstrates that B. guianensis, a fast-growing species associated with high durability and high dimensional stability, is a good candidate for lumber production and commercial purposes.

Deterioração da madeira de Eucalyptus spp. por fungos xilófagos

Conduziu-se esta pesquisa, com o objetivo de avaliar a capacidade de deterioração de fungos isolados de madeiras de Eucalyptus spp. e realizar a análise química da madeira deteriorada, para verificar quais dos seus componentes sofreram maiores alterações em consequência do ataque. O experimento foi conduzido no Laboratório de Biodeterioração da Madeira, Departamento de Ciências Florestais e da Madeira, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, no município de Jerônimo Monteiro, ES. Doze fungos foram utilizados, destes, nove foram provenientes de culturas puras isoladas a partir de fragmentos de cepas de madeiras de eucalipto deterioradas, coletadas em três localidades distintas, e três culturas puras com reconhecida capacidade de deterioração que foram utilizadas como padrão de comparação. Dos fungos testados, os Basidiomiceto 1 e Basidiomiceto 2 exibiram boa capacidade de deterioração da madeira de Eucalyptus spp. O cerne de eucalipto teve maior resistência natural que o alburno, mas os fungos foram capazes de degradar ambas as madeiras. De modo geral, houve um incremento no teor de extrativos totais na madeira deteriorada (cerne e alburno), para os Basidiomiceto 1 e Basidiomiceto 2. Nas madeiras de cerne de Eucalyptus grandis houve decréscimo no teor de extrativos para ambos Basidiomicetos. Com relação à holocelulose (celulose + hemiceluloses), ocorreram pequenas diferenças entre as madeiras sadias e deterioradas (variações médias em torno de 1%). Dos fungos testados, o Basidiomiceto 2 causou maior degradação da lignina quando comparado ao Basidiomiceto 1.

Diversity of decay resistance strategies of durable tropical woods species: Bocoa prouacencsis Aublet, Vouacapoua americana Aublet, Inga alba (Sw.) Wild

The study of decay resistance in wood is of interest for wood end-users but also for the global carbon balance since wood biodegradation is a key driver of forest ecosystem functioning through its impacts on carbon and nutrient cycling. We studied the density and wood extractive contents in order to understand decay resistance against soil microflora after 90 days exposure of sapwood and heartwood from three Neotropical wood species known for their decay resistance: Bocoa prouacensis, Vouacapoua americana, Inga alba. Decay resistance was correlated with density more than wood extractive content. The results highlighted different decay resistance strategies. In B. prouacensis, both sapwood and heartwood were highly resistant due to the high density and high content of antifungal wood extractives. In V. americana heartwood, decay resistance was due to the high synergistic-acting wood extractive content. Conversely, with the least dense wood species I. alba, we found that decay resistance was due to the antifungal wood extractives synthesized early in the sapwood. In conclusion, we showed that the three wood species with the same level of heartwood decay resistance performance had different decay resistance strategies according to the anatomic and defensive wood traits.

A comparison of nanoindentation cell wall hardness and Brinell wood hardness in jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.)

Nanoindentation is a powerful tool for hardness testing on a very small scale. Since the technique was first introduced for studying wood cell wall mechanics, it has been integrated as an important tool for measuring the modulus of elasticity and hardness of wood cell walls. In this study, hardness measured with nanoindentation (nanohardness) was compared with hardness measured by the standard Brinell test method (Brinell hardness) on jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) wood. Nanoindentation was performed on both the S2 layer of the secondary cell wall and the middle lamella (ML) of early- and latewood fibers. Four annual growth rings were studied. The influence of growth ring and initial spacing on both measurements was analyzed. The relationship between Brinell hardness, nanoindentation measurements, and average ring density was also studied. Results suggest that Brinell- and nanohardness are controlled by different mechanisms and factors. The location of nanohardness measurements (i.e., S2 layer or ML) also influenced hardness differently. It was concluded that nanomeasurements are not an exact representation of wood mechanical properties conducted at the macro level because of the hierarchical structure of wood. The effect of other factors such as moisture or wood extractive content may also need consideration.

Efeitos dos extrativos e cinzas na resistência natural de quatro madeiras a cupins xilófagos

O objetivo da pesquisa foi correlacionar a resistência natural de quatro madeiras ao ataque do térmita xilófago Nasutitermes corniger Motsch. com a quantidade de extrativos e cinzas presentes na composição química das espécies ensaiadas. As madeiras avaliadas foram angico (Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan. var. cebil (Gris.) Alts.), craibeira (Tabebuia aurea (Mart.) Bureau.), cumaru (Amburana cearensis (Allem.) A.C.Sm.) e eucalipto (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.). De cada espécie, foram retirados corpos de prova, com dimensões de 2,00 x 10,16 x 0,64 cm (radial x longitudinal x tangencial) em duas posições (cerne externo e alburno). As amostras ficaram expostas à ação dos cupins durante 45 dias em ensaio de preferência alimentar. O teor de extrativos das madeiras foi obtido por meio da serragem que passou pela peneira de 40 "mesh" e ficou retida na de 60 "mesh". A resistência natural não esteve associada aos teores de extrativos presentes na madeira. A madeira mais resistente ao ataque dos térmitas foi o angico nas duas posições avaliadas (cerne externo e alburno) e a madeira de eucalipto foi a que apresentou o maior desgaste, ocasionado pelos cupins. A resistência biológica das madeiras esteve correlacionada com o teor de cinzas, ou seja, a espécie que apresentou o maior teor de cinzas foi a mais resistente ao ataque dos térmitas.

Variability in The Natural Termite Resistance of Plantation Teak Wood and its Relations With Wood Extractive Content and Color Properties

Property of natural termite resistance of teak ( T ec tona g r an d i s ) wood signifies one of its most important characteristics. With the purpose of understanding the variation in such resistance, four teak trees in the form of trunk (stem) from Randublatung , Central Java were randomly selected, and each wood portion sampled in radial and axial direction. Extractive content and color properties of the teak wood were also measured and correlated with properties of its natural termite resistance. Bioassay test was conducted by no-choice feeding method using R e t ic u l i t e r m e s spe r a tus Kolbe termites. The extractive contents were determined by successive extraction using n -hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol, respectively. Color properties were measured with the CIELAB system. Results showed that antitermitic activity of the teak wood was affected by radial and axial position in the corresponding tree. The wood from middle part of the trees in axial direction exhibited the most resistant to termites (mean mass loss = 1- 4 mg ), while in radial direction the sapwood exhibited the least resistance ( greatest mass loss), and moving inward to the near-pith heartwood the resistance tended to decrease somewhat (slight increase of mass loss). Heartwood and sapwood part differed significantly in ethyl acetate and methanol- soluble extractive contents. Apparently, the greater the ethyl-acetate-soluble extractives (EEC) then the higher the termite resistant (lower mass loss), and conversely the greater the methanol- soluble extractive (MEC) then the lower the termite resistant ( greater mass loss). The brightness index (L*) and redness index (a*) varied significantly in radial direction, however, no significant variation was found in color properties within the heartwood. No strong degree correlation was measured between the mass loss due to termite activity and extractive content parameters. In both heartwood and sapwood, a significant negative correlation ( r = -0.50) was found between the mass loss and redness (a*), while correspondingly a significant positive correlation ( r = +0.54) occurred between brightness and mass loss. These occurring phenomena strongly suggested that the red colored teak wood was brought about by the moderately polar EEC (e.g. tannin, quinone, and other polyphenol) that inflicted teak-wood resistance against termite (lower mass loss), while the bright-colored teak wood was due to the highly polar MEC (e.g sugar and other soluble carbohydrate) which were conversely responsible for lowering termite resistance ( greater mass loss).

Genetic variation in wood specific gravity among half-sib families of chir pine (Pinus roxburghii sargent)

Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) is an important tree species that grows all along the Himalayas. Wood specific gravity of chir pine before and after removal of extractives from wood increment cores was assessed from a 22-years-old progeny test in Himachal Pradesh, India. These values averaged 0.433 and 0.425, respectively. A large amount of genetic variation among the 58 half-sib families was found as indicated by range of values, additive coefficient of variation, variance estimates and narrow-sense heritability values for these traits. Moisture and extractive content averaged 86.259% of oven-dry weight and 2.003% of extractive-free oven-dry weight, respectively. Wood extractive content was highly variable and the family differences were highly heritable (hf2 = 0.5831). There was wide variability in moisture content, but a large portion of it was due to environmental or non-additive component of genetic variation. Heritability on family mean basis was found to be lower than that on individual tree basis for each trait. Estimated gain in specific gravity resulting from 30 to 50% family selection ranged from 0.0080 to 0.0127. Growth data and specific gravity were not significantly correlated implying that selection for higher growth rate would not necessarily result in reduction in wood specific gravity in chir pine.

Relações entre propriedades químicas, físicas e energéticas da madeira de cinco espécies de cerrado.

Os objetivos da pesquisa foram caracterizar e avaliar a influência das propriedades químicas (teores de lignina, holocelulose e extrativos) da madeira de cinco espécies lenhosas de Cerrado (Pterodon pubescens, Dalbergia miscolobium, Sclerolobium paniculatum, Stryphnodendron adstringens e Vochysia thyrsoidea) na densidade básica e na contração volumétrica da madeira; nos rendimentos e densidade aparente do carvão vegetal. As amostras foram coletadas em área de manejo florestal em Brasília, provenientes de três árvores de cada espécie, perfazendo um total de 15 amostras. Não houve diferença significativa entre as espécies para o teor de extrativo da madeira e rendimento gravimétrico em carvão vegetal. Pterodon pubescens, Dalbergia miscolobium e Sclerolobium paniculatum se destacaram por apresentarem, respectivamente, as maiores densidades básicas (0,82, 0,80 e 0,78 g/cm3); os maiores teores de lignina (31,74, 32,31 e 31,42%); as maiores densidades aparentes do carvão vegetal (37, 43 e 37%). Por outro lado Stryphnodendron adstringens e Vochysia thyrsoidea apresentaram, respectivamente, os maiores teores de holocelulose (72,22 e 74,84%). O teor de lignina apresentou correlação positiva e significativa com a densidade básica da madeira e com a densidade aparente do carvão vegetal e não apresentou correlação significativa com a retração volumétrica e com o rendimento gravimétrico. O teor de holocelulose apresentou correlação negativa e significativa com a densidade básica da madeira e com a densidade aparente do carvão vegetal. Os extrativos totais não apresentaram correlação significativa com nenhuma das variáveis analisadas.

Pyrolysis and smoke formation of grey alder wood depending on the storage time and the content of extractives

Grey alder ( Alnus incana (L.) Moench.) wood is often used in the Baltic countries for the production of curing smoke. Unfortunately, the smoke contains an elevated concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The effect of the content of wood extractives and the wood storage time after felling on the formation of benzo( a)pyrene (B( a)P), flavouring compounds and antioxidants was studied. Storage time demonstrated a considerable effect on the overall increase of the B( a)P formation. The extraction (elimination) of extractives did not show any definite coherency with the concentration of B( a)P in smoke primary condensates, which was within the range from 1.1 to 8.7 μg/kg. Storage time and the elimination of extractives increased the yields of both 2-hydroxyacetaldehyde and 1,6-anhydro-β,D-glucopyranose (levoglucosan) from 1.8 to 10 times during the pyrolysis process and smouldering. It is interesting that the intensified formation of both substances takes place simultaneously, which commonly does not occur. Nevertheless, the prolonged storage time and the elimination of extractives do not substantially improve the quality of smoke and its condensates.

Selection criteria of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. for production of chemithermomechanical pulps (CTMP)

Abstract Utilization of rapidly growing trees, such as eucalypts, for high-yield mechanical pulps is limited by low brightness owing to high contents of alkali and neutral extractives. Wood supply problems have developed in many areas of the world and new sources of high-yield pulp are needed. Ten Eucalyptus globulus trees were selected from two plantation sites to evaluate suitability as raw material for high-quality and high-yield pulp. Chemithermomechanical pulp (CTMP) was prepared from tree chips pretreated with sodium sulfite prior to refining. Characteristics of the CTMP were correlated with chemical and physical properties of the wood. There was a linear relationship between the content of alcohol-benzene extractives in wood and CTMP brightness. Klason lignin content in wood was inversely correlated with pulp sheet density, which is an important characteristic affecting the physical properties of pulp. The content of alkali extractives were inversely correlated with pulp yields. Color reversion was tested by exposing CTMP sheets to heat and light. Heat-induced yellowing of CTMP was of a low level and satisfied requirements for printing paper. The rate of yellowing was inversely associated with extractives and can be reduced by antioxidants.

Effect of storage time on the composition and content of wood extractives in Eucalyptus cultivated in Brazil

Lipophilic wood extractives commonly referred to as pitch, cause significant problems for the pulp and paper industries. The reduction of these extractives is an important aspect that concerns industries around the world. In the present work the change in the amount and chemical composition of lipophilic extractives from Eucalyptus spp. stored for 20, 40, 60, 100, 140 and 180 days after harvesting was investigated. The results showed a decrease in extractives content with storage time, with the most significant decrease occurring 60 days after harvesting. In addition, fatty acids and sterols were the main classes of compounds responsible for the significant decrease in extractive content. Data were analyzed by principal component analysis. PC1 explains approximately 99% of the total variance, and β-sitosterol was the major compound responsible for the differentiation. These studies demonstrate that in terms of economical aspects, quality of the pulp and paper and minimization of pitch formation, the best period of wood storage is 60 days.

The potential in bioethanol production from waste fiber sludges in pulp mill-based biorefineries

Industrial production of bioethanol from fibers that are unusable for pulp production in pulp mills offers an approach to product diversification and more efficient exploitation of the raw material. In an attempt to utilize fibers flowing to the biological waste treatment, selected fiber sludges from three different pulp mills were collected, chemically analyzed, enzymatically hydrolyzed, and fermented for bioethanol production. Another aim was to produce solid residues with higher heat values than those of the original fiber sludges to gain a better fuel for combustion. The glucan content ranged between 32 and 66% of the dry matter. The lignin content varied considerably (1-25%), as did the content of wood extractives (0.2-5.8%). Hydrolysates obtained using enzymatic hydrolysis were found to be readily fermentable using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Hydrolysis resulted in improved heat values compared with corresponding untreated fiber sludges. Oligomeric xylan fragments in the solid residue obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis were identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight and their potential as a new product of a pulp mill-based biorefinery is discussed.

Controlled Seasoning of Scots Pine Chips Using an Albino Strain of Ophiostoma

Traditional seasoning of wood chips normally results in significant yield losses and brightness reduction due to the uncontrolled action of microorganisms. Techniques for reduction of the amount of wood extractives with minimal yield and brightness loss are therefore of interest for the pulp and paper industry. To study a biotechnological approach for reduction of wood extractives, wood chips from sapwood of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) were treated with a commercial albino strain of the sap stain fungus Ophiostoma piliferum. During 2 weeks of controlled seasoning, the content of wood extractives decreased by approximately 40% for Scots pine and 25% for Norway spruce, where the triglyceride contents were degraded to a greater degree. Thermomechanical pulps were produced from untreated and pretreated pine chips. The properties of these pulps and corresponding laboratory sheets were investigated. The pretreated pulps showed less shortened fibers, lower amounts of triglycerides, and enhanced strength properties. The mechanisms behind these effects are discussed. Furthermore, the ability of the albino Ophiostoma piliferum to displace mould growth from wood chips was investigated in a series of experiments. It was concluded that the fungus should preferably be inoculated on fresh chips in order to repress mould growth.

Effects of bacterial treatments on wood extractives

Bacterial strains were isolated from spruce wood chips and their ability to reduce the content of wood extractives was studied. Strains were screened by cultivation on liquid media containing wood extractives as the major nutrient. Some bacterial species could decrease remarkably the amount of extractives in the liquid media and reduced the amount of triglycerides, steryl esters and total extractives by 100, 20 and 39%, respectively. Spruce wood chips were treated in controlled conditions with selected bacteria to test their effects on the chips. All the bacteria grew well on wood chips. The effect of bacterial metabolism on wood extractives was significant. Bacterial treatments reduced the amount of lipophilic extractives by 16–38% in 1 week of treatment and up to 67% in 2 weeks. The most efficient strain removed 90, 66 and 50% of triglycerides, steryl esters and resin acids, respectively, in 2 weeks. These results indicate that bacteria may be promising agents for the removal of extractives for improved pulping and papermaking processes.