Share Of Women Research Articles

No gold‐diggers here: Women investors in colonial Australian mining

AbstractWe draw upon an extensive database of investors in colonial Australian mining, during the 1850s–80s, to provide the first historical analysis of the nature of women's share investing in Australia. Women were a minority of investors by number and value of holdings and faced a series of obstacles, yet their presence grew throughout the period. Most women invested independently neither drawing on male relatives nor other women. Many opted for only a single investment in this high‐risk industry, but a small minority built significant portfolios. We reveal that women managed these risks differently from men, taking account of their attitudes towards company characteristics, investor location, portfolio diversification, and the cyclical trends in mining.

Free to represent you and me: Gender attitudes and women's share of parliament, 1995–2021

Women are under-represented in political leadership roles, comprising only a quarter of national parliament members across the world. This is surprising, given women's comparatively high level of education and labor force participation. Why has women's political leadership lagged behind other indicators of gender equality? In this study, we revisit the importance of gender attitudes and examine the extent to which they shape women's share of parliament. Prior studies either examine gender attitudes by relying on cross-sectional research designs with small samples or adopt proxy measures that serve as crude indicators of gender ideology. We overcome these limitations by directly measuring gender attitudes from the World Values Survey and European Values Study, while adopting a panel design with a larger sample of countries and a more comprehensive set of controls. Drawing from our dataset of 275 observations across 101 countries during the 1995–2021 period, we find that our attitudinal measure, gender egalitarianism, wipes away most of the observed differences in women's share of parliament between world regions. Moreover, when we add two-way fixed effects, we find that a one-unit increase in a country's gender egalitarianism score is associated with an increase in women's parliament share by about four or five percentage points. Finally, we address concerns about endogeneity by replicating our results using two-stage least squares models with fixed effects. Overall, our findings suggest that gender ideology helps account for the growing success and persistent obstacles faced by women political candidates across the world.

Cognitive household labor: gender disparities and consequences for maternal mental health and wellbeing.

Although the division of unpaid household labor has been studied as a driver of global gender inequity, the cognitive dimension of household labor-planning, anticipating, and delegating household tasks-has received less empirical investigation. Cognitive household labor represents a form of invisible and often unacknowledged domestic work that has been challenging to measure. Within 322 mothers of young children, we assessed the division of both cognitive ("planning") and physical ("execution") household labor within 30 common household tasks using a self-report measure. We found that while mothers did more of the overall domestic labor than their partners, the division of cognitive labor was particularly gendered, such that women's share of cognitive labor was more disproportionate than physical household labor. We found that cognitive labor was associated with women's depression, stress, burnout, overall mental health, and relationship functioning. This study is one of the first to investigate cognitive labor quantitatively, and the first to investigate cognitive and physical dimensions within the same household tasks. Understanding how cognitive labor affects mothers' mental wellbeing has important implications for both practice and policy.

Women in STEM graduate education: Case of the German excellence initiative

AbstractAre public policies effective in enhancing gender balance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) graduate education? Although the literature is rich in studies that prescribe micro‐level interventions to promote gender balance in specific STEM areas or institutions, there are surprisingly few studies that quantitatively evaluate existing macro‐level policies. Using Germany's Excellence Initiative as an event study, I analyse changes in cohorts of doctorate recipients in STEM fields and investigate whether the Excellence Initiative's graduate school line of funding, which is a large‐scale public policy that aimed to create and sustain STEM graduate programs, also succeeded to increase women's share among STEM doctorate recipients. Assessing difference‐in‐differences in natural sciences and mathematics doctorate recipients between 2000 and 2014, I find no statistically significant evidence that the Excellence Initiative led to any significant increase in women's participation in STEM studies beyond already existing trends in these fields. I find, however, significant differences between funded and non‐funded STEM graduate programs in their rate of internationalization, which was another major policy target of the Excellence Initiative.

Women's Economic Empowerment and Inheritance Rights across Major Global Religions: A Comparative Exploration

Women make up more than the total population of the world. These women were neglected in all societies. The history of this woman's acquisition of wealth is a history of extreme brutality. In different religions of the world women's share of inheritance is provided differently. In certain scenarios, men may receive a larger share, while in others; women may be entitled to more. However, in essence, there is no inherent inequality. Allah has created both men and women, and He is omniscient and all-wise. He has ordained what is beneficial for each. A comparative discussion of how the inheritance of women is provided in the major scriptures of the world is attempted in the discussion article; and the confusions created by the so-called women progressives about the inheritance of women in Islam have been adequately answered.

Women's Work and the Occupational Structure in Late Nineteenth-Century Sweden

Abstract It has long been recognized that, in order to understand economies in the past, we need better information about women's work and tertiary sector work. It is also well known that, while valuable in many ways, nineteenth-century censuses give incomplete information about women's contributions to the economy. Consequently, censuses are a poor basis for estimating the occupational structure. This article offers a solution to these problems by triangulating census data with qualitative information extracted from court records. The result is a more reasonable estimate of the first-level occupational structure in a Swedish local society (Västerås and its surroundings) around 1880. This estimate suggests that just before the onset of industrialization, around eighty per cent of the adult population, women and men, were active in primary and tertiary sector work. Compared to the census, the analysis sets women's share in the primary and the tertiary sectors at higher levels. The article has a strong methodological focus and describes in detail how the court records were analysed and adjusted to be comparable with the census.

The politics of disaggregated family policy: The role of party ideology and women's political representation in governments

AbstractAlthough affluent democracies experienced family policy expansion, there are remarkable country differences. Whilst some countries focus on policies supporting the male breadwinner model such as family allowances, others prioritise gender equality supporting public childcare. We explain this variation by arguing for governments as key actors in parliamentary democracies and test two sets of explanations: party ideology and women's representation. Our error correction models covering 16 affluent parliamentary democracies between 1991 and 2015 reveal that non‐left rather than left parties matter for family policy. Secular centre and Christian‐Democratic parties promote father‐specific leave, whilst secular right parties reduce spending on childcare and family allowances as well as father‐specific leave. The share of female ministers is associated with higher childcare expenses, and instead of women's share, the gender of the family affairs minister affects father‐specific leave expansions.

Interrelationship between Share of Women in Parliament and Gender and Development: A Critical Analysis

Gender and development are among the two most important components of any economy to sustain its perpetual and sustainable economic growth in both the long as well as short run. The role of women in parliament and the interrelationship between gender and development is critically analysed. Women’s representation in parliament is the dependent variable and the predictor variables considered are gender development index, female access to assets, female labour force, and country GDP per capita. Data were collected from the UNDP human development report for the period 2015 to 2021–2022 and World Bank for 188 countries of which finally 159 were considered to develop the model based on data availability. We have used the theoretical lens of social stratification theory and gender role theory to frame the hypothesis. A random effects model-based panel regression analysis of the data indicated a strong positive relationship between gender development index and the dependent variable, but no relationship between female labour force, and access to assets. The study addresses a critical gap in policy and development of the literature on gender, politics, and development using a global data set, establishing the importance of indicators such as gender development index, and laying down the path for future research on the subject.

What Happens When Employers Can No Longer Discriminate in Job Ads?

When employers' explicit gender requests were unexpectedly removed from a Chinese job board overnight, pools of successful applicants became more integrated: women's (men's) share of callbacks to jobs that had requested men (women) rose by 61 (146) percent. The removal “worked” in this sense because it generated a large increase in gender-mismatched applications, and because those applications were treated surprisingly well by employers, suggesting that employers' gender requests often represented relatively weak preferences or outdated stereotypes. The job titles that were integrated by the ban, however, were not the most gendered ones, and were disproportionately lower-wage jobs. (JEL J16, J23, J41, J63, J71, M51, P31)

Parenthood and the gender division of labour across the income distribution:: the relative importance of relative earnings.

This study employs a gendered relative resource approach to examine whether the importance of relative resources in shaping changes in the gender division of labor after first birth varies by couples' household income. A substantial body of scholarship has argued that the gender division of labor within different-sex couples is influenced by partners' relative resources. However, couples face class-based constraints that may alter the relevance of relative resources in shaping changes in gender divisions of labor following the transition to parenthood. This study compares couples' divisions of paid work and housework before and up to four years after first birth, using 28 waves of the British Household Panel Survey and the UK Household Longitudinal Study (N = 1,606 couples). I find that the effect of relative resources on changes in couple's paid work and housework behavior after first birth varies substantially by household income. Among higher-income couples, women's paid work and housework time changes less among those with high relative earnings and more among those with low relative earnings, while men's time allocation varies little after first birth. By contrast, among low-income couples, after first birth women's paid work time and share decreases most among female breadwinners while their male partners' paid work time increases substantially. These findings reflect the greater constraints that low-income couples face in making decisions about the division of household labor after first birth and highlight the need for greater attention to class interactions in the process of gender specialization in both research and work-family policy.

The Appointment of Women to Authoritarian Cabinets in Africa

AbstractWhat explains variation in the inclusion of women in authoritarian cabinets? We theorize that leaders of electoral autocracies are affected by changing international norms of democracy and women's rights to appoint women ministers. We propose two hypotheses. First, increasing dependence on aid from democratic donors encourages leaders of electoral autocracies to appoint more women ministers. Second, electoral autocrats uprooting democratic traits appoint more women ministers to minimize the reputational costs of their autocratization. Using data from authoritarian regimes in 38 African countries between 1973 and 2013, we find that increases in aid from democracies are associated with modest increases in women's share of cabinet seats. As our theory suggests, this relationship holds only in electoral autocracies in more recent years when norms of gender equality have been strongest. Conversely, we find no evidence that autocratization periods are associated with increases in women's cabinet share. Additionally, we show that supply-side factors and the politics of multi-ethnic coalition building appear to explain differences in women's cabinet seat share in autocracies.

The gender peak effect: Women are most vulnerable to infections during COVID-19 peaks.

In this article, we describe a gender peak effect that women's relative share in COVID-19 infections increases when there is a sharp increase in cases, and it reaches the highest level during peak times in each wave of the COVID-19 outbreak. We demonstrate this gender peak effect by analyzing detailed, sex-disaggregated Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) data. The data include 1,045,998 men and women who were confirmed cases of COVID-19 from March 2020 to February 2022. We show that women's relative share in COVID-19 infections always increases and reaches the level exceeding men's share when we see a sharp peak in case number. We further show that women's higher share in care work (e.g., captured by occupation and age variables) largely explains their elevated infections during COVID-19 peaks. Effective public health interventions during infectious disease outbreaks must recognize this potential gender peak effect and take appropriate measures to curb women's health vulnerabilities.

The Impact of Glass Ceiling Factors on Job Performance of Women Employee - A field study on the employees of Damascus University in 2021 -: أثر محدّدات السقف الزجاجي على الأداء الوظيفي للمرأة العاملة - دراسة ميدانية على العاملين في جامعة دمشق -عام 2021م -

The study aims to study the impact of Glass Ceiling factors (the family, cultural, individual, organizational and legal and legislative factors) on Job Performance of women employee. The method used is the analytical descriptive method since it is appropriate for this type of the study and it applied to a random sample stratified. To implement the aim of the study, the researchers designed questionnaire. The sample of the study consists of (348) of them were valid for statistical analysis. Then the results of the study were analyzed according to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program. The most important results of the study are: There is significant impact of the of the Glass Ceiling on Job Performance of women employee, and the change percentage in the dependent variable was.(72.3%) There is also significant impact of the family factors, cultural factors, individual factors, organizational factors and legal and legislative factors on Job Performance of women employee, and the organizational factors have the most influence and its change percentage in the dependent variable was (56%). There is no material difference in the answers to the Glass Ceiling and job performance questionnaire, attributed to personal and job variable (gender, social status, education level, age, years of the experience, job title, job position). The study made several recommendations, the most important of which are: holding seminars and intellectual conferences focusing the importance of women's work and holding up training programs for developing and enhancing the administrative abilities and leadership skills for women, in addition to setting regulations, laws and legislation that encourage increasing women's share of supervisory jobs.

Operation STEM fatale - how an equity, diversity and inclusion initiative has brought us to reflect on the current challenges in cell biology and science as a whole.

Operation STEM fatale - how an equity, diversity and inclusion initiative has brought us to reflect on the current challenges in cell biology and science as a whole.

Determinants of corruption: a panel data analysis of Visegrad countries

Research background: Corruption is a phenomenon that has no borders, thus hindering the proper functioning of the social, economic, and legal systems of a given state. As the rankings assessing the level of corruption in various countries show, transition economies are more vulnerable to corruption than countries that have not undergone changes in the political and economic order. The Visegrad group is an example of such countries. Despite their efforts, these countries? governments have yet to match the evaluation of corruption indices for developed European countries. Purpose of the article: This study analyses the determinants of corruption in Visegrad countries to identify which determinants are the most impactful and thus should be the focus of Visegrad countries?governments when creating anti-corruption policies. Methods: Data for the period 1996?2019 from the databases of the World Bank, Transparency International, and the European Central Bank were used for panel data analysis. The study uses a comprehensive set of economic, socio-cultural, and political determinants that can influence corruption. The purpose of this large set of variables is to prevent possible distortion owing to omitted variables. Findings & value added: The results of the analysis of panel data show the main determinants of corruption in Visegrad countries are economic, political, and socio-cultural (phase of economic development, openness of the economy, size of the public sector, degree of urbanization, and women's share in the labour force). A significant effect was also demonstrated in the case of regulatory quality and public sector wages. The findings can serve as a valuable resource for policymakers to develop government policies in individual countries and to implement effective anti-corruption tools.

Natural resources, women and corruption

Natural resources play an important role in the global policy debate among policymakers. This study shows how natural resource rent and share of women in parliament determine corruption level across countries using data of 141 countries from 1997 to 2018. The results indicate that natural resource rent will increase corruption level while the share of women in parliaments decreases corruption level across countries. Surprisingly, we find that countries with high natural resource rent can reduce their corruption level once they will increase the share of women in their parliaments. Our results are robust across countries using various subsamples and models and all models strongly support the hypotheses that raising women's share in parliaments reduces corruption level in natural resources. The results have important implications for policymakers to increase the share of women in their parliaments to improve the usage of natural resource rent in a proper way to reduce corruption.

Female farm holding in Botswana's agriculture industry

ABSTRACT In the Botswana Labour Force Survey, agriculture was identified as the fastest growing employing industry with growth mainly driven by the entrance of women into the industry. As such, the purpose of the study was thus to investigate how the demographic profile of farm holders have changed in Botswana over time. Using Agricultural Survey Reports, the paper descriptively analyses changes in the gender and age composition of farm holders in Botswana. The study found that the industry has in fact employed a larger share of women, but that the movement of women into the industry was still largely dependent on those of men. This is evident in the fact that the share of married male and female farmers move in opposite directions. It also found that during times of distress women's share as farmers increased. The movement of men and women in the industry indicates that policies which have historically been geared towards the needs and characteristics of male farmers and their households may require gender mainstreaming to accommodate female farmers and their households. This paper opens up a debate around gendered social assistance which accommodates women not just as ordinary household members, but more specifically farmers.

Women's share and its modern interpretations

This paper is of a scientific and journalistic nature. The modern cross-border social movement, known under the code Me too, is considered as a threat to the socio-cultural and spiritual and moral security of the country. The purpose of this article is to unite the efforts of educators and social psychologists in identifying this threat and actively countering it. This threat is particularly dangerous for children and young people because of their gullibility and naivety, their inability to navigate information flows.

Affirmative Action and Intersectionality at the Top: Evidence from South Africa

Previous research shows that gender‐based board quotas alone do not increase women's share in senior management positions. We study the effects of an affirmative action policy in South Africa, which stipulates group‐based targets for senior management roles, beyond boards, focusing on representing intersectional identities, sex, and race. Our findings show that the policy led to a sizable increase in employment probability in top positions for Black women relative to their employment in these positions in the counterfactual scenario of no policy. We extend our analysis and estimate policy spillovers in education, wages, and self‐employment.

The Share of Women in Decision-making Positions Across Different Levels of Government

ABSTRACT This paper investigates formal and informal patterns of the recruitment process and the features of types of elections to shed light on what affects the share of women across levels of government (European, national, and local). A single country and party – the Portuguese Socialist Party – was analysed to rule out intervening factors, and 19 in-depth interviews were conducted. Our findings highlight the specificities of each type of election, their interactions with the recruitment process, and the relevance of informal factors.