Personality Characteristics Of Women Research Articles

Determination of aging anxiety in middle-aged women.

The aim of this study was to determine the state of aging anxiety in middle-aged women. The study was collected from women between the ages of 40 and 59 years by an online survey method. While collecting the data of the participants, the women's personal characteristics diagnostic form and the Aging Anxiety Scale for Middle-Aged Women were used. The data were analyzed with the SPSS 26 statistical software. The aging anxiety of the women was found to be moderate (53.05±16.26). A significant correlation was found between women's menopausal status, household income, education level, and total score of aging anxiety (p<0.05). In addition to working outside the home, women are also burdened with duties inside the home. To improve their quality of life, women need to share many of the tasks imposed on them with other family members. To reduce the anxiety experienced by women during the climacteric period, it is recommended to provide psychosocial support to women and consider this issue in health policies. Healthcare professionals, especially nurses, have important duties to reduce anxiety and stress, which constitute the basis of many chronic diseases. It is recommended that nurses, who are health ambassadors, direct women with anxiety to psychological support services through screenings they will conduct for women during this period.

Phenomenological Study of Women Entrepreneurs and Their Impact on Socio-Economic Growth in Malaysia

The study was conducted on women entrepreneurship and socio-economic growth in Malaysia. The study on women entrepreneurship in Malaysia was on Women entrepreneurship is said to be the emerging phenomenon of the 21th Century. It has been recognised that today women are as likely as men seeking business opportunities around them. Women entrepreneurs are able to contribute to socioeconomic development of the country. However, women entrepreneurs were found to encounter internal and external barriers to their business growth. Based on the literature review on entrepreneurship highlighted numerous constraints and barriers to women entrepreneurship which include amongst others gender-biased, lack of entrepreneurial and business skills, finance and even the personality characteristics of women. In this study there were four factors and barriers facing entrepreneurship growth were identified. They were personality traits, business skills, knowledge and training, the need for government support system and support systems that contribute to women entrepreneurship growth and the socio-economic growth of the country. In order to answer these four objectives, this study conducted a focus group method in order to clearly understand the phenomenon of women entrepreneurship in Malaysia. It has been informed the focus group approach is commonly used in social science research. A selected group of 10 key person women entrepreneurs answered the interview and discussion via online focus group discussion. The structured questionnaires were also distributed to the 10 entrepreneurs participated and responded in focus group discussion. The focus group discussion centred on four themes on women entrepreneurship development, women and its contribution to socio-economic growth, including household income, employment and society wellbeing. Data collection on entrepreneurial psychological factors, barriers to women entrepreneurship success and growth, government support systems and the social and economic growth of the country were gathered from the focus group discussion and were analysed using NVIVO software package. The results of the study were tabulated based on four themes and sub themes. In conclusion this research has established a woman entrepreneurship socio-economic model in Malaysia. A causal relationship model configured variables as a main guidance for entrepreneurship stakeholders and practitioners. This study was a phenomenological study on woman entrepreneurship and its effect on women socio-economic growth in Malaysia. The study provided implications to stakeholders in addressing women entrepreneurship problems and barrier to women business growth. It was recommended that further research on women entrepreneurship will be based on industrial and business sectors dominated by women.

Subjective and Personal Characteristics of Women with Breast Cancer: A Factorial Model of Disease Risks and the Course of Disease.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate psychological factors influencing the incidence of breast cancer in women. Basic beliefs, coping strategies, hardiness, subjective control, personal helplessness and independence were studied in 184 women, of which 80 women diagnosed with breast cancer, 104 women without a cancer diagnosis. All study participants completed psychodiagnostic methods and sociodemographic questionnaires. First, we analyzed differences in the psychological characteristics of women depending on the presence of an oncological diagnosis (F - Fisher's test). Second, we conducted factor analysis (principal component analysis with Varimax with Kaiser Normalization) to obtain psychological risk factors for breast cancer in women. Distinctive psychological characteristics of women with breast cancer have been discovered. Women with breast cancer underestimate their worth and importance (p=0.021), as well as their luck (p=0.006) and the ability to control events in their lives (p=0.019). Women with breast cancer are very independent (arrogance) (p=0.000), rarely use confrontation-type coping (p=0.05), positive reappraisal (p=0.05), and planful problem-solving (p=0.035). Women diagnosed with breast cancer have an external locus of control (p=0.002), and are low hardiness (p=0.029). The listed features that distinguish women with breast cancer from cancer-free women were considered as probabilistic psychological risk factors for breast cancer. As a result of factor analysis, a model was obtained that included psychological factors associated with breast cancer in women: Independence (arrogance) (28.88% of variance), Belief system (24.83% of variance), Maladaptive coping (20.17% of variance). Extreme independence, beliefs about one's failure, insignificance and inability to control life, as well as maladaptive coping are probabilistic psychological risk factors for breast cancer among Russian women.

The Role of Personal Characteristics in Shaping Gender-Biased Job Losses during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Case of South Africa

This paper contributes to the literature on the effects of adverse economic conditions on gender differences in the labour market by assessing how COVID-19, a global trigger for a critical adverse condition, impacted gender differences in the labour market in a country with pronounced discrimination and inequality in the labour market. In fact, the paper investigates how the personal characteristics of women and men affected their likelihood of losing jobs during and before COVID-19 in South Africa. Using the database of the National Income Dynamics Study-Coronavirus Rapid Mobile Survey (NIDS-CRAM) and NIDS wave 5 dataset and based on logit regression, the paper finds that personal characteristics such as tertiary education had a negative effect on job losses among females. Moreover, the results show that, compared to male workers, female workers were the most affected by the pandemic due to the lockdown regulation that affected many households’ behaviour.

“We bounce back from the worst of the worst”: assets of Flint-area women identified in the Flint Women’s Study

ABSTRACT Economically disadvantaged communities experience disproportionate health and social challenges relative to more affluent areas. This study describes ways women support and give back to their community in a minority-majority community experiencing social, economic and health challenges. We conducted qualitative interviews with 100 women and human service providers serving women in Flint, Genesee County, Michigan. Using methods aligned with community-based participatory research, a group of community and academic partners analyzed the data. Participants noted several personal characteristics of women they identified as assets including resilience, strength, resourcefulness, creativity, determination, tenacity, wisdom and the ability to nurture others. We think these personal characteristics represent individual assets that help women in Flint survive and build social capital. Women reported developing their social capital through giving, collaborating and sharing their skills with people in their personal networks. Significant personal assets in the form of individual characteristics already exist within Flint. Even in an area characterized as having health and economic challenges, women in this study were able to leverage their personal assets to build social capital and to mobilize resources for their benefit and the benefit of the community.

HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES OF FORMING SPIRITUAL VALUES OF STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

The article is devoted to the problems of forming spiritual values of students in the educational process of higher education institution. The author defines the term “spiritual values of student youth” and specifies the structural components of this personal complex of features. The article presents a series of pedagogical conditions, forms and methods of education that will promote the spiritual and value self-affirmation of the student's personality. The author reveals the content and peculiarities of pedagogical support in the process of forming the spiritual values of student youth in the center of modern high school education. The process of developing the spiritual values of higher education students in institutional settings involves the disclosure of young men and women's own personal characteristics, self-knowledge and self-awareness of the possibilities for a creative life structure. Spiritual values are offered by socially valuable landmarks, relationships with others, moral beliefs, students' ability to organize their own life activities in accordance with accepted norms of behavior. In addition, it can be said that society and the individual are connected by moral qualities that represent spiritual values in an emotionally fixed form. An important condition for the formation of spiritual values of students of higher education institutions is pedagogical support of students in moral self-determination, individual spiritual values. Pedagogical support has value if it is willful, targeted, tactful, competent, dosed, has everyday nature, and most importantly, if it fully works for the perspective and fulfills its educational purpose in all cases. Pedagogical support for the formation of students' spiritual values should be systematic and include the following factors: the need to optimize communication and increase the level of the teacher's personality development; the ability to define an individual communication style; availability of a flexible and creative approach to the problems of educational interaction; the subjects' desire for self-development. In the individual support of students of higher education for the disclosure of their spiritual values, five interrelated stages can be distinguished (diagnostic, exploratory design, active; reflective), each of which ensures the development of various forms, methods, and means of educational activity.

Analysis of Personal-Professional Status of Women Managers for Sustainable School Management in Turkey

For a sustainable education, it is imperative to empower women in the education process. This study aims to evaluate and describe women's personal and professional characteristics in school management in Turkey. In the study, the opinions of woman school managers about the goals of becoming a manager in line with their images of self-efficacy, self-esteem and organizational justice and their perspectives on the problems arising in the process were discussed. Mixed method research was carried out and a total of 288 women school managers working in the different provinces in Turkey participated in this study. An evaluation of the findings of the research found that the women school managers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy levels were high in contrast to the organizational justice level. This shows that the promotion of women school managers’ organizational justice image is significant in the context of building sustainable school management in Turkey.

Personal characteristics of women with different reproductive attitudes

Personal characteristics of women with different reproductive attitudes

Цифровизация социальных контактов – риски для женщин, использующих приложения и сайты знакомств для поиска брачного партнера

The article presents the results of an empirical study related to the problem of the risks of digitalization of social contacts when searching for marriage partners through dating sites. The research hypothesis suggests that these risks are fraud; sexual harassment; stalking; abuse of received information of an intimate nature; distortion of perception of the communicative situation, reality, communication partner; the occurrence of negative psychological consequences. It is assumed that the risks will increase due to the characteristics of the personality of women. The respondents were 197 women who used dating sites to find a marriage partner. A specially developed author's questionnaire was used, as well as standardized methods. It was revealed that such types of risks as fraud, sexual harassment occur regardless of the personal characteristics of the respondents. Risk of facing fraud increases among successful women. Risk of the distortion of the perception of the communicative situation, reality, communication partner and risk of the occurrence of negative psychological consequences directly depend on the personal characteristics of women.

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL STATUS OF WOMEN WITH VARIOUS FORMS OF INFERTILITY

Background. The current demographic situation in Russia causes an increase in interest in different studies of the reproductive potential of married couples, including various forms of female infertility. Aim. The purpose of the study was a comparative analysis of psychoemotional and personal characteristics of women with identified and unidentified infertility factors. Materials and methods. Two groups were formed for a comprehensive psychological examination: the first group included 52 patients with verified causes of infertility, the second group comprised of 46 women with an unexplained cause of infertility (idiopathic infertility). For mathematical processing of results, in order to identify statistical differences between parameters in groups, the Mann–Whitney U-test implemented in the SPSS 26.0.0.1 program was applied. Results. The analysis showed significant differences between women of the studied groups in a number of scales of the meaning of life orientation test, the Freiburg personality questionnaire, questionnaires of socio-psychological attitudes, reflexivity, level of aggression, methods of the lifestyle index, neuropsychic stress, “personal differential”, the test of the level of depression and stress resistance. Summarizing the data obtained, it can be noted that patients with established causes of infertility use opportunities to adapt to the new realities of life, including professional achievements, social and intellectual activity, to resolve this situation and reduce neuropsychic stress. Women with idiopathic infertility are characterized by more pronounced neuropsychic stress, neurotic reactions, infantile qualities, regressive behaviors, immature types of psychological defense, decreased activity, and changes in motivational attitudes. Conclusion. The choice of tactics for individualized psychological correction based on psychological examination of patients in an interdisciplinary approach will contribute to improving the effectiveness of infertility treatment.

Личностные особенности женщин с негативными установками в сфере секса

Введение. Проблема изучения личностных особенностей женщин, способствующих их успешной самореализации как субъекта сексуального поведения, сегодня особенно актуальна. В русле тенденции к снижению половой сегрегации женщины должны быть довольны смягчением норм, ограничивающих проявление их сексуальности, однако на практике наблюдается рост числа женщин, обращающихся по поводу сексуальных проблем. Новизна представленного исследования состоит в фокусировании исследовательского интереса непосредственно на выборке женщин с негативными сексуальными установками с целью изучения у них специфических личностных особенностей. Методы. В исследовании приняли участие 152 женщины (клиентки кризисных и консультационных центров г. Иркутска). Отношение женщин к сексу изучалось с помощью «Опросника установок к сексу» Г. Айзенка. Для составления личностных профилей женщин с разными установками в сфере секса использовался опросник Р. Кеттелла (форма С). Достоверность различий оценивалась с помощью критерия Фишера. Результаты. Выделено шесть групп женщин, имеющих позитивное и негативное отношение к различным аспектам сексуальной сферы, у 15,38 % испытуемых выявлено отвращение к сексу. Выявлены достоверные отличия женщин с негативными и позитивными установками к физическому сексуальному контакту по фактору «фемининность – маскулинность». Данный фактор отвечает за выраженность в поведении женщины традиционного женского сексуального поведения, следование жестким моральным нормам, что согласуется с низкими баллами по шкалам теста Айзенка («дозволенность», «обезличенный секс», «сексуальная возбудимость» и «сексуальное либидо»). Обсуждение результатов. Выявлено, что среди женщин с негативными установками в сфере секса преобладают традиционные фемининные взгляды на сексуальность, сохранению брачных уз, а также нетерпимое отношение ко всему постыдному. В личностных профилях женщин с негативными установками в сфере секса преобладают ригидность мышления, высокая нормативность поведения, подчиненность, застенчивость, сдержанность в проявлении эмоций, поглощенность внутренними иллюзиями.

Planned home birth in Brazil: a systematic review

Planned home birth (PHB) has grown in Brazil, especially in large urban centers, in the face of women's dissatisfaction with the current obstetric system. International studies have demonstrated the security of PHB, but national production about this area is still limited. Thus, this study aimed to review the national bibliographic production about PHB between 2008 and 2018, in order to compile data related to PHB in Brazil. After survey, 18 studies were included in the review, and then subdivided into the following categories: "Maternal and neonatal outcomes of PHB", "Feelings, motivation and personal characteristics of women that choose PHB", "Perception of professionals that practice PHB" and "Theoretical approach to PHB". It was concluded that the PHB has grown between privileged portions of Brazilian population, representing the important practice of women's autonomy, presenting itself as a safe alternative place of birth, with a high degree of satisfaction of women and families. However, this model of assistance presents itself as a limited option, since the PHB is not offered by the Health System, still unaccessible to most of women in the country.

КЛИНИКО-ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ СОСТОЯНИЯ ЖЕНЩИН, ПЕРЕЖИВШИХ ДОМАШНЕЕ НАСИЛИЕ

Problem and purpose. The article presents a review of theoretical provisions and studies on the problem of psychological traumatization of women who experienced domestic violence. There is a lack of research on subtle and difficult-to-measure aspects of violence against women, such as psychological ones. At the same time, any form of continuous domestic violence, such as psychological ones, leads to physical, emotional or psychic consequences. Purpose of the article is to identify and characterize the clinical and psychological aspects of traumatization of women who suffered from domestic violence, as well as to specify their personal characteristics. Methodology of research is based on the concepts of psychological traumatization of V. D. Mendelevich and Sells S. B., scientific works of Kachayeva M. A. and Dozortseva E. G.[Kachayeva, Dozortseva, Hitskova]. The analysis of scientific foreign and domestic works was carried out. A total of 68 participants were interviewed, women who suffered from domestic violence, 69% are aged from 20 to 30 years, 30% are of 31-41 years of age. We used two blocks of techniques that allowed us to identify personality characteristics of the respondents and the degree of their traumatization. The block of traumatization diagnostics: Clinical questionnaire for the detection and evaluation of neurotic conditions (the authors-K. K. Yakhnin, V. D. Mendelevich). Test of neuro-psychic adaptation (I.N. Gurvich), Scientific Research Institute named after V.M. Bekhterev. The “Five traumas” Test (Liz Burbo). Block of personality characteristics determination: The Cattell 16 PF questionnaire Symptomatic questionnaire SCL-90-R: Scale of Derogatis. Results. The study showed that in women who experienced domestic violence, the indicators of psychopathological symptomatology exceed the normative standards, what indicates the presence of certain disorders. For example, there was revealed the presence of an acute sense of the importance of one,s own personality, the feeling of negative expectations concerning interpersonal interaction with other people. In the state of traumatization, women experience depression and have a pathological psychic level of disadaptation which is not noticeable from aside. The dominant trauma is the one of humiliation which testifies to a pronounced masochistic radical. Conclusion. It is concluded that personality characteristics of women who suffered from domestic violence show their low level of intelligence, emotional immaturity, and the presence of negative expectations about communication with other people. Women who were victims of domestic violence are depressive and maladaptive. And taking into account their general difficulties in communication with other people and general emotional immaturity they find themselves in a complex situation which can probably force them to stay in a traumatic relationship again and again.

Psychological Status of Perimenopausal Women with Climacteric Syndrome

Introduction. Women’s health is an important goal of modern medical, psychological, and social research. Unfavorable external and internal negative factors, which worsen psychoemotional status and lead to psychophysiological disadaptation, and also the increase in life expectancy determine the importance of the issue. Perimenopausal women with the so-called climacteric syndrome are at special risk. The novelty of the research lies in studying psychological characteristics of perimenopause complicated with climacteric syndrome.&#x0D; Methods. The study used the following techniques: (a) “Your Health”, a questionnaire developed by O. S. Kopina and L. Reader; (b) “Assessing Neuropsychic Stress”, a technique by T. A. Nemchin; (c) the Rapid Diagnosis of Predisposition to Unwarranted Anxiety by V. V. Boyko; (d) the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) by Ch. D. Spielberg and Yu. L. Khanin; (e) the Individual Typological Questionnaire (ITQ) by L. N. Sobchik; (f) and a technique for diagnosing health, activity, and mood – HAM test – developed by V. A. Doskin and co-authors. The participants comprised 143 menopausal women aged 45–55 years.&#x0D; Results. The study revealed the insufficiently explored personality characteristics in menopausal women with and without climacteric syndrome. Personal anxiety and climacteric syndrome had a statistically significant relationship in perimenopausal women.&#x0D; Discussion. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the psychology of menopause and help in improving methods for diagnosis and psychocorrection of climacteric syndrome. Further research will concentrate on the bioelectric and bioenergetic processes forming the basis for personality characteristics in women with climacteric syndrome.

WOMEN WORKFORCE LOOKING THROUGH THE GLASS CEILING

Women have begun to take part in business life intensively in the last century. However, despite the rapid rise in the number of women in business world, the proportion of women among senior managers and leaders has been very low. Research on the subject demonstrates that women face difficulties called ‘Glass Ceiling’, which cannot be seen apparently and at the same time which is hard to overcome in order to reach the senior executive positions. ceiling refers to the difficulties that take place between women and the top management which do not allow them to move along their career regardless of their success and skills. There have been many theories about why women are underrepresented in senior management positions. If gathered under three headings, these are: Bias-centred, person-centred, and structural-centred theories. Bias-centred theories consider that the fundamental causes of inequalities are discrimination, stereotyping and prejudice by the greater part of the society or dominant group. Person-centred theories accept that differences in men's and women's personal characteristics and behaviour cause women to be unsuccessful at management positions. Structural-centred theories suppose that the main causes of inequality are the structural policies and customs of a social system, thus social structure dominated by men raise the discrimination against women. In this paper ‘Glass Ceiling Syndrome’ has been researched, the related literature on the subject has been investigated and the results were tried to be tested by a field survey. Within the scope of the study, a questionnaire was developed to determine the perception and attitudes of women who are working in a research hospital in Izmir on Glass Ceiling Syndrome”. The glass ceiling was analysed at nine dimensions in the questionnaire; these are: barriers stemming from top management, negative prejudices against women, family life, sex discrimination, women’s rise in their career, organizational culture and politics, informal communication networks, mentoring and occupational discrimination. Research has shown that women are uncomfortable with prejudices about themselves and now they are ready for senior management positions. Women have been also more conscious day by day and they have been trying to break the glass ceiling which is like a barrier on their career. Eventually it can be said that the increase in educational and cultural level of the society will be the main factor on breaking the glass ceiling.

Explaining inequalities in women's mortality between U.S. States

Inequalities in women's mortality between U.S. states are large and growing. It is unknown whether they reflect differences between states in their population characteristics, contextual characteristics, or both. This study systematically examines the large inequalities in women's mortality between U.S. states using a multilevel approach. It focuses on “fundamental” social determinants of mortality at the individual and state levels as potential explanations. We analyze data from the 2013 public-use National Longitudinal Mortality Study on women aged 45–89 years and estimate multilevel logistic regression models. The models include women's personal characteristics (age, race/ethnicity, education, employment, income, and marriage) and states’ contextual characteristics (economic environment, social cohesion, sociopolitical orientation, physical infrastructure, and tobacco environment). We found that variation in women's mortality across states was significant (p<0.001). Adjusting for women's personal characteristics explained 30% of the variation. Additionally adjusting for states’ contextual characteristics explained 62% of the variation; the most important characteristics were social cohesion and economic conditions. No significant mortality differences between any two states remained after accounting for individual and contextual characteristics. Supplementary analyses of men indicate that state contexts have stronger and more pernicious consequences for women than men. Taken together, the findings underscore the importance of ‘bringing context back in’ and taking a multilevel approach when investigating geographic inequalities in U.S. mortality.

Личностные особенности женщин – руководителей и специалистов современных социально-гуманитарных вузов

Личностные особенности женщин – руководителей и специалистов современных социально-гуманитарных вузов

Associations of Body Mass Index and Physical Activity With Sexual Dysfunction in Breast Cancer Survivors

Sexual dysfunction is a common and distressing consequence of breast cancer (BC) treatment. In the present study, we investigated the sexual functioning of BC patients and its association with women's personal characteristics and cancer treatments. In this cross-sectional study, sexual function was assessed using the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). The health-related quality of life (HRQOL) was measured using the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) QLQ-C30 and its breast module BR-23. Of the 235 participants approached, 216 participants were included in the study. Of these, 63 patients reported no sexual activity in the last month and thus were analyzed only in relation to the sexual desire domain of FSFI. A total of 154 (71.3%) patients were classified with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). From those patients reporting sexual activity in the last month, 63.3% (97 out of 153) were classified with sexual dysfunction. Using hierarchical logistic regression, the variance explained (change in R 2) by the addition of body mass index (BMI) and mild to moderate physical activity in the prediction models of sexual dysfunction and HSDD were 6.8 and 7.2%, respectively. Age, BMI, and physical activity were independently associated with sexual dysfunction and HSDD. Additionally, BC patients with sexual dysfunction reported lower scores on global HRQOL, role functioning, and fatigue. Based on our findings, BC survivors should be encouraged to practice regular physical activity and to lose weight in order to avoid sexual dysfunction. However, future clinical trials are needed to confirm these findings.

Demographic and Personal Characteristics of Male and Female Chairs in Academic Psychiatry.

Despite the strong representation of female psychiatrists in residency and early-career positions, the number of female faculty sharply decreases in tenured or executive leadership positions. Why there exists a marked change in representation at the level of senior leadership within academic psychiatry is unclear. The authors investigated the causative factors contributing to this observation and gathered information about the personal characteristics of women in executive leadership roles. The authors surveyed psychiatry chairs at academic institutions. They identified all female chairs and randomly selected a group of male chairs to serve as a control group. The survey assessed perceived barriers, strengths, and weaknesses and differences in demographics and leadership styles between female and male chairs. Ten percent of psychiatry chairs were female. Male chairs were more likely than female chairs to head large departments (p = 0.02, confidence interval (CI) -17.1-69.1) and had a higher H-index (p = 0.001, CI 6.6-37.2). Female chairs were more likely than male chairs to perceive barriers in their career development (p = 0.01, CI 0.7-2.2), citing little or no mentorship (p = 0.04), gender discrimination (p = 0.0001), and family obligations (p = 0.001) more often. Academic institutions must incorporate programs to decrease barriers and work to achieve equitable representation of women in upper-level leadership positions. Moreover, academic medicine must evolve to cultivate a family-friendly environment that successfully supports both genders.

Antenatal care and women's birthing decisions in an Indonesian setting: does location matter?

Poor maternal health outcome, still a major health problem in developing countries, is influenced by both women's personal characteristics and the characteristics of the place where they live. Identifying the spatial distribution and clusters of poor maternal health outcomes can assist in developing geographically specific interventions. This article examines the influence of urban and rural settings on antenatal care and birthing decisions in South Sulawesi, a province in Indonesia, and investigates the existence of geographical clusters of women's decision regarding antenatal care and birth assistance. Data were derived from a survey of 485 women who recently gave birth. Household coordinates, midwives' location and hospital location were recorded using a handheld global positioning system (GPS). Logistic regression was used to examine the influence of place of residence on antenatal care and women's birthing decisions. SaTScan software was used to identify the location of geographical clusters. ArcGIS v9.3 was used to visualize and interpret the distribution of facilities and clusters. Area of residence determines the likelihood of a woman presenting for antenatal care--care that pregnant women receive from skilled birth attendants. The likelihood of hospital delivery or delivery at home with the support of a skilled birth attendant (SBA), however, was not determined by residential area. Distance to nearest SBA, working as a village midwife, was associated with the likelihood to be assisted by her at home. Attendance of SBA at home, or delivery at a hospital, were clustered in urban areas at different geographical locations, but no similar clustering occurred in rural areas. In contrast, women with low numbers of antenatal care visits and a traditional birthing assistant (TBA) at home were clustered in particular rural areas, but low antenatal care visits and use of TBA were not clustered in urban areas. Although area of residence did not appear to influence the likelihood of women delivering at hospital or with SBA at home, clusters of women follow particular patterns of behaviour in different geographic settings. This clustering highlights the heterogeneity of both urban and rural areas.