Occupational Status Of Women Research Articles

Shackled by double disadvantage? Gender, segregation and immigrants’ occupational attainments

The aim of the article was to determine whether immigrant women's occupational status reflect a double disadvantage in comparison to immigrant men and inborn women and how patterns are formed by occupational segregation. The study utilised register data for descriptive comparisons of the immigrant and inborn populations in Sweden ( n ≈ 4,900,000). Regression analyses were performed on nationally representative surveys of the immigrant ( n ≈ 2600) and total ( n ≈ 3200) labour force. The results do not support the notion of a double disadvantage. In the immigrant population, only women with primary/secondary education have jobs with lower average prestige than men, reflecting the fact that women are clustered in female-dominated occupations. Among immigrants with higher education, the gender gap is reversed, and men's disadvantage is explained by ethnic segregation. Compared to Swedish-born individuals, prestige gaps are substantially larger for men. After accounting for segregation, the gap is closed among women but not among men.

Does the digital economy generate a gender dividend for female employment? Evidence from China

Using data from the China General Social Survey, the China Family Panel Studies, and a unique dataset of enterprises' online recruitment, this research examines the effect of the digital economy on female employment. The empirical results suggest that the digital economy significantly promotes female employment. Consistent with our theoretical analysis, the estimates indicate that this relationship holds because the digital economy promotes the formation of egalitarian gender perspectives, promotes the use of digital technology, and increases labor demand emphasizing the necessity for female-preference occupations. The dividend of the digital economy is tilted toward vulnerable groups in the labor market, including the low-skilled, older, and rural workforce, and only exerts an employment promotion effect on women without parenting burden. Further examination reveals evidence that digitalization has not led to a holistic improvement in the quality of female employment. Digitalization lengthens the working hours of severely underemployed female workers, and improves women's occupational status and job satisfaction; however, it has a minimal impact on protecting employees' rights and interests or reducing overtime workers' work intensity. Nonself-employed, full-time, and part-time workers all benefit from the development of the digital economy, while self-employed workers do not. In addition, a weakening effect of digitalization on the gender employment gap is not evident, which relates to the digital economy generating a female dividend in terms of promoting gender equality and increasing labor demand but resulting in a digital gender divide in the use of digital technology.

Women's occupational status during pregnancy and preventive behaviour and health outcomes between 1998 and 2016 in France

Despite an improvement in preventive care and perinatal health in previous decades, social inequalities persist, particularly to the disadvantage of isolated or unemployed women. The objective was to analyse the evolution between 1998 and 2016 of the association between women's occupational status and perinatal outcomes. Data came from four national surveys performed in 1998, 2003, 2010 and 2016. Occupational status was defined by maternal employment status and type of occupation during pregnancy. Preventive behaviours (initiation of antenatal care, antenatal classes, breast feeding) and health outcomes (hospitalization, preterm birth, birth weight below the 10th percentile) were analysed by occupational status adjusted for other maternal characteristics, for each study year. The studied sample included 12,497 women in 1998, 13,290 in 2003, 13,209 in 2010 and 11,179 in 2016. The proportion of employed women increased from 66% to 75% between 1998 and 2016, and that of housewives decreased from 22% to 12%. The proportion of preterm births globally increased between 1998 and 2016, especially for housewives. The proportion of low birthweight for gestational age (LBWGA) remained similar over the years. From 1998 to 2016, the differences between occupational groups persisted for preterm births and LBWGA. Occupational groups exhibited strong social differences in preventive care over the entire study period and persisted in the recent data. As a major social indicator, women's occupational status during pregnancy has to be considered as a risk factor of poor preventive behaviour and unfavourable perinatal outcomes.

Cultural malpractices during pregnancy, child-birth and postnatal period among women of child bearing age in Loma Woreda, Southwest Ethiopia

BackgroundEvery day nearly 810 women died from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. Sub-Saharan Africa shares two-thirds of the world's maternal mortality ratio. World health organization recommends skilled care to save the lives of women and newborns. However, cultural malpractice is a common practice in developing countries like Ethiopia. So this study intends to determine the prevalence of cultural malpractice during pregnancy, childbirth and postnatal period and associated factors. MethodA community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Loma district southwest Ethiopia from February to June 2018. A sample of 387 reproductive-age women who gave birth in the last two years was included using a systematic sampling technique. Data were collected using pretested structured interviewer-administered questionnaire. A multivariable logistic regressions model was used to identify independent predictors of cultural malpractice. Significance association was declared by AOR at 95% confidence and p-value <0.05. ResultA total of 387 participants were involved in the study yielding a response rate of 100%. The prevalence of cultural malpractice during pregnancy, childbirth, and postnatal period was 68%, 37.5%, and 72.6% respectively. The occupational status of women being students (AOR = 3.198, 95% CI: 1.250, 8.184) was an independent predictor of cultural malpractice during pregnancy. Age less than 30 (AOR = 2.075, 95% CI: 1.282, 3.357), rural residence (AOR = 1.892, 95% CI: 1.014, 3.532), occupation housewife (AOR = 2.841, 95% CI: 1.228, 6.575), merchant (AOR = 3.077, 95% CI: 1.134, 8.346) and number of pregnancy less than five (AOR = 2.707, 95% CI: 1.594, 4.597) were independent predictors of cultural malpractice during childbirth. Occupation housewives (AOR = 0.408, 95% CI: 0.226, 0.736) and a number of pregnancies less than five (AOR = 1.832, 95% CI: 1.035, 3.244) were independent predictors of cultural malpractice during the postnatal period. Conclusionand recommendation: cultural malpractice among reproductive-age women was high. Therefore, concerned bodies should strengthen the promotion of skilled birth attendance and community sensitization on the cultural malpractice consequences.

The psychological impact and perception of COVID -19 pandemic on pregnant women presenting to a tertiary care hospital, KPK, Pakistan.

Purpose: To determine the psychological impact and perception of covid -19 pandemic on pregnant women presenting to a tertiary care hospital, KPK, Pakistan.&#x0D; Methodology: An observational cross-sectional study was conducted on pregnant women in the outpatient department of Lady Reading Hospital, Peshawar from 1st February 2020 to 31st March 2021. All pregnant women (n=424) visiting gynae OPD who fulfilled the inclusion/exclusion criteria were included. The questionnaire was filled out by physicians for patients and the Kessel-10 scale was used to classify the anxiety.&#x0D; Findings: Fifty one 51% females fall in the 19-25 years age group. 54.5% were illiterate with most of the women (94.6%) being housewives. The majority of the 424 women in the study were multiparous (59%) and 59.1% presented in their third trimester. The highest number of patient women in the age group 19-25 years suffered mild distress. Moderate stress was found in 54 women. In all age groups, a total of 11 patients suffered severe psychological distress. 144 women reported having no stress. Nulliparous women were 109 in total and most of them had either mild disorder (n=54) or no stress at all (n=48). the majority of ladies who were housewives stated that they have been mildly stressed (n=208) or not stressed at all (n=139). A total of 11 women had faced severe stress. 247 women had third-trimester pregnancies and most of them (n=129) had mild stress. Severe distress affected 8 of the third-trimester women and 3 of the 2nd-trimester women. Most women (71.9%) believed that elective Cesarian surgery is not better than vaginal delivery during the covid -19 pandemic. COVID-19 pandemic has created anxiety in more than half (53%) of pregnant women visiting OPDs. The literacy rate and occupational status of women had little effect on the occurrence of psychological distress.&#x0D; Recommendations: Strict SOPs must be observed in hospitals and pregnant women should receive counseling regarding their fears and anxiety from medical care-takers. More studies are needed to measure mental health challenges in pregnant and postpartum women, as well as the resilience and risk factors associated with beneficial outcomes, to attenuate the pandemics' long-term mental health impacts.

A Study to Assess the Stress among Antenatal Women Admitted for Safe Confinement at a Tertiary Level Hospital, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

Aim: To assess stress among antenatal women admitted for safe confinement and to find stress level and related factors for stress. Identifying the level of stress will help to develop interventions to reduce the stress. Objectives: i) To find out the level of stress experienced by antenatal women. ii) To find out the association between level of stress and selected socio-demographic and clinical data of antenatal women. Method: A quantitative research approach-descriptive cross-sectional survey design was adopted. 60 samples were selected for the study by using purposive sampling technique. Results: It is identified that 1% of selected antenatal women had no stress, 73% had mild stress, 25% had moderate stress and 1% had severe stress. After calculation of chi square values, it is identified that there is association between stress level and selected sociodemographic variables (occupation) and also there is significant association between stress level and clinical data (parity). Conclusion: Majority of women in their antenatal period experience varying stress. 73.33% of them had mild stress where as 26.66% experienced moderate stress. Extreme levels of stress including no stress and severe stress were very rare ie, 1%. Multiple factors have association with their stress level. Present study documented significant association with parity and occupational status of women. Keywords: stress, antenatal women, safe confinement.

Depression and Its Association with Food Insecurity in Household Women Living in Northwest of Iran

A B S T R A C T Background and Objectives: Depression is the most common mood disorder, which may be experienced by most of the people during their life. Food insecurity may result in mental disorders such as anxiety and depression. The aim of this study was to assess depression status and its relation to household food insecurity in women living in Northwest of Iran. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional community-based study, 480 women with high-school children were selected from East Azerbaijan Province, Iran, using random sampling method. Beck depression inventory, 18-item food security questionnaires and socio-economic questionnaires were completed by the participants and then weight and height of the participants were measured. Independent sample t-test, chi-square test and binary multiple logistic regressions were used for data analysis. The P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: In this study, frequencies of depression and household food insecurity included 43.1 and 48.3%, respectively. Results indicated significant positive correlations between the food insecurity and depression in women. Of the studied socio-economic variables, age, family size, economic status, occupational status of women and their husbands and educational levels were significantly associated with depression. Body mass index (BMI) of women was negatively associated with depression. Conclusions: Results showed that frequencies of depression and household food insecurity were high in participants. It seems that the improvement of socioeconomic status and subsequently improvement of the women's food security can positively affect their mental health.

Factors Associated with Women Unemployment in Ethiopia

Unemployment is one of the main challenges of the modern era in both the developed and developing countries. Employment of women in economic activities has several beneficial effects for women and their families. Unemployment gives rise to private and social problems in the society such as increased crimes, suicides, poverty, alcoholism and prostitution. High level of unemployment rates can also contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS in developing countries. In general, unemployment affects household income, health, government revenue and hence GDP and development at large. Studying unemployment therefore helps tackle these problems through some kind of policy actions. The average unemployment rate for women age from 15-49 was 48.8%. The unemployment rate is still significantly higher among females. Heavy domestic duties, pregnancy and discrimination are some of the reasons for female unemployment. Ethiopian women also earn less than men. Unemployment is more of a problem of women than that of their counterparts. This issue dictates the researcher to consider the determinants and consequences of unemployment of women in Ethiopia. In line with this, the objective of this study is to study the determinants of unemployment of women in the study area. This study used data from Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS), 2016. A Binary Logistic Regression Analysis is used to identify the most important determinant factors which are associated with the occupational status of women in Ethiopia. The result of binary logistic regression model also revealed that place of residence, educational level of woman, currently pregnant, currently breastfeeding, wealth index, age of the respondent at the first birth and marital status had significant effect on women unemployment at 5% level of significance.

Determinants of Anemia among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic in Public Health Facilities at Durame Town: Unmatched Case Control Study.

Background Anemia among pregnant women is one of the most common public health problems in developing country. World health organization (WHO) estimate shows nearly half of pregnant women were affected by anemia. High burden of anemia is observed in Africa particularly in Ethiopia. However, the factors that contribute to the occurrence of anemia were not exhaustively studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify determinant factors of anemia among pregnant women in Durame Town, southern Ethiopia. Method An institutional based unmatched case control study was conducted among 111 cases and 222 controls in Durame Town from 16th February to 8th May 2017 using interviewer administered questionnaires. Controls were pregnant women whose hemoglobin level was 11 g/dl and above at their first antenatal care clinics and cases were pregnant women whose hemoglobin level was less than 11 g/dl. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression model was used to see the determinants of anemia. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and p-value were used to identify the significant association. Result A total of 333 women (111 cases and 222 controls) participated in the study. The major determinant factors were parasitic infection (AOR: 3.67, 95% CI: 1.72-7.86), not taking additional diet during pregnancy (AOR: 2.49, 95% CI: 1.22-5.08), consuming tea/coffee immediately after food (AOR: 3.58, 95% CI: 1.72-7.42), not eating meat (AOR: 2.07, 95% CI: 1.03-4.15), previous heavy menstrual blood flow (AOR: 2.62, 95% CI: 1.18-5.84), and being housewife (AOR: 2.38, 95% CI: 1.02-5.57). Conclusion Parasitic infection, additional diet during pregnancy, consuming tea/coffee immediately after food, meat consumption, previous heavy menstrual blood flow, and occupational status of women were significant factors associated with anemia among pregnant women. Therefore, anemia prevention strategy should include promotion of counseling on additional diet during pregnancy, preventing parasitic infection, and increasing employment opportunities for women.

Domestic Violence among Women in Households in Imo State, Nigeria: Prevalence, Pattern and Determinants

Introduction: Globally, at least 1 in 3 women has experienced some form of gender based abuse during their life time.Domestic violence occurs across the world in various cultures and affect people across society, irrespective of economic status.Aim: The aim of this study is to assess the prevalence, patterns and determinants of domestic violence among women in households in communities in Imo State.Methodology: This was a cross-sectional descriptive study carried out among 600 women living in households in Imo State. The multistage sampling technique was used to select the study participants and data was collected using a pretested, interviewer administered and semi-structured questionnaire. The data was analyzed using a computer software (EPI INFO version 7.1.3, CDC, USA), and was presented on frequency tables and percentages. Associations between variables was done using Chi-square and logistic regression where necessary. P value of ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant.Result: The mean age of women studied was 31.5±1.4 years. The prevalence of life time and current experience of domestic violence among the women were 72.8% and 42.6% respectively with physical (49.2%) and sexual (31.2%) abuse being the commonest types experienced. Factors found to be associated with current abuse were; age of women, (p=0.040),religious set attended, (p=0.004), occupational status of women, (p=0), marital status, (p=0.028), occupational status of partner, (p=0), place of residence, (p=0), house hold size,(p&lt;0.0001), monthly income of women, (p&lt;0.0001), persons lived with, (p=0.002) and level of knowledge about domestic abuse, (p=0).Conclusion: The prevalence of domestic violence among women in this study was high. Thus, there is need for government at all levels and concerned agencies to do everything within their powers to curb this menace as this will help to improve the lives of our women.

Toward Better Gender Equality? Portrayals of Advertising Models’ Occupational Status in Chinese Magazines

ABSTRACTThis study assesses women's occupational status portrayed in Chinese advertising through a content analysis of 1,524 models in 12 Chinese magazines. Contrary to the authors’ predictions, Chinese men were not more likely than Chinese women to be shown in working roles or less likely than Chinese women to be shown in Family roles. However, a gender bias was revealed in other subcategories of occupational status: Chinese men were more likely to be portrayed as High-level business executives and Professionals, less likely to be shown as Entertainers, and less likely to be shown as Models. As predicted, Western women were less likely than Chinese women to be shown in working roles, in Family roles, and more likely to be shown as Models. Overall, advertising portrayals of gender roles in the Chinese context reflected the coexistence of global consumer culture and Chinese local dynamics.

Determinants of Intrauterine Contraceptive Device Use Among the Women of Urban Areas of Nepal

Aims: This study aimed to identify the determinants of Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) use among the married women of reproductive age group living in urban areas of Nepal. Methods: This study was an analytical cross-sectional study which aimed to compare different factors between 110 IUCD users and 110 non-users. Both groups were selected randomlyand interviewed by using semi-structured questionnaire. Chi-square test was used to detect the difference between two groups and corresponding odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were also computed. Results: When the IUCD users were compared to non-users, religion, occupational status of women, occupational status of the husbands, total number of children, sources of information about IUCD, having wrong beliefs about IUCD, availability of IUCD services, reproductive intention and spousal communication were significantly associated with the use of IUCD.The main reason for using IUCD was due to the effectiveness for longer duration and for not using IUCD was due to the feeling of no need. Conclusions: Wrong beliefs about the device discouraged women from using IUCD, hence, awareness programs are strongly recommended.Nepal Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology / Vol 8 / No. 2 / Issue 16 / July-Dec, 2013 / 16-20 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/njog.v8i2.9760

Manisa merkez yarı kentsel bölgede bir aile sağlığı birimine kayıtlı kadınlarda bazı birinci basamak sağlık hizmet özelliklerinin değerlendirilmesi

Ozet Amac: Birinci basamak saglik hizmet ozellikleri kaynakca dogrultusunda bilimsel olarak olculebilir niteliktedir ve ilk basvuru, sureklilik, kapsayicilik ve koordinasyon gibi temel hizmet ozellikleri uzerinden degerlendirilir. Yontem: Ornek seciminde cok asamali kume ornekleme yontemi kullanilmis, veriler yuz yuze gorusme teknigine gore yapilandirilmis anketle toplanmistir. Arastirma bolgesindeki toplam hane sayisi 870’tir. Kume ornekleme yontemi ile 376 haneden 318 kadina ulasilmistir. Arastirmanin ulasilabilirlik orani % 84.6’dir. Arastirmanin bagimli degiskenleri; Ilk basvuru, Sureklilik, Kapsayicilik ve OHS (Olagan Hizmet Surekliligi) gibi hizmet ozellikleridir. Bagimsiz degiskenler ise kadinin ve esinin yasi, kadin ve esinin egitimi, medeni hal, kadinin calisma durumu, sosyal sinif (esin isine gore), gelir algisi, bolgede yasama yili, goc edilen bolge, saglik guvencesi, aile tipi, bes yasindan kucuk cocuk varligi ve hanedeki cocuk sayisi kullanilmistir. Bulgular: Katilimcilarin yas ortalamasi 38.3±15.3’tur. Bir saglik sorunu nedeniyle aile hekimine basvurma % 61.0, ondan bir onceki saglik sorununda AH’ne (Aile Hekimi) basvuru %55,2 oranindadir. Bu sorularin her ikisine de “ayni aile hekimine basvururum” cevabini verenlerin (OHS) orani %40.1 olmustur. Aile Sagligi Birimini yakin, normal mesafe bulanlarin orani %93.1’dir. Aile hekiminin ismini bilme %84, ebenin ismini bilme %36.2, her turlu sorununuzla surekli ilgilenen bir hekim veya saglik kurulusuna kayitli oldugunu soyleyenlerin %74.5’tir. Son bir yilda evime ebe ziyareti aldim diyenler %40.6 oranindadir. Sonuc: Arastirmanin yapildigi ASB’de gecen bir yillik ilk AH uygulama doneminde sosyallestirme donemiyle karsilastirildiginda, tedavi edici hizmet oruntusunun degismedigi buna karsin gezici ebe hizmetlerinin azaldigi gorulmustur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Aile sagligi birimi, ilk basvuru, sureklilik, kapsayicilik, olagan hizmet sunucu surekliligi Abstract Aim: The capability of primary care services can be scientifically measured and assessed via basic elements of these services such as accessibility, longitidunality, comprehensiveness and coordination. Methods: A multistage cluster sampling method was used and the data were collected by face to face interviews with a structured questionnaire. An overall 870 households which were recorded in a Family Practice Unit (FPU) consisted of the universe of this study and 318 women were identified from a sample of 376 households by cluster sampling method. The response rate was of 84.6%. The dependent variables in the study were, the First contact care, Continuity (Usual provider continuity), Comprehensiveness; whereas independent variables were, the women’s and husband's age, the women's and husband's education, marital status, women's occupational status, family social class, perception of income, years of residency in the region, the area of emigration, health insurance status, family type, existence of children under five years of age. Results: The average age of participants was 38.3 ± 15.3. The percentage of women who preferred FPU services for their most recent health problem was 61.0%, whereas this percentage was 55.2% for the previous experienced health problem. The Usual Provider Continuity (UPC) rate was 40.1%. 93.1 percent of women stated that FPU is quite close to their house. The proportion of the women who knew the name of their family physician was 84.0% and 36.2% them knew the name of their midwife. Of the respondents, 74.5% had been registered with a PHC facility or a primary care physician. Midwives visited 40.6% of the respondents at least once during the last year. Conclusion: This research indicates that, the pattern of therapeutic services was not changed in the new FPU system, compared to the previous socialized health organization in the Primary Care services. Besides this fact, mobile midwife services might be said to have decreased in the new FPU system. Key Words: Family health unit, the first contact, continuity, comprehensiveness, usual provider continuity.

Gender inequality, violence against women, and fear: a cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women.

This article presents a cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women. Combining data from the International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) with United Nations statistics, the findings support the theory. Specifically, the results indicate that the educational and occupational status of women in a country is related to the prevalence of sexual violence against women. In countries where the status of women is low, prevalence of sexual violence against women tends to be higher. In turn, sexual violence is related to higher levels of fear among women relative to men. In comparison, in countries where the status of women is high, sexual violence against women is lower. The findings of this study add confirmation to the argument that we need to look beyond individual level variables to understand and develop strategies for reducing violence against and fear among women.

Women in the Fourteenth-Century Venetian Scuole

This article examines the presence of women in fourteenth-century Venetianscuole piccoleand describes their participation. According to surviving confraternity statutes, women seldom shared in the governance of the entire confraternity. But female office holders were often responsible for their sisters in matters of illness, death, burial, and sometimes moral conduct. They also made contributions and left numerous legacies to their scuole. Membership lists sometimes reveal the social and occupational status of women. Information on one confraternity for women only, the Scuola d'Umiltà, survives.

Human Capital and Black Women's Occupational Mobility

This paper measures the contribution of human capital to the dramatic cimprovements in black women's occupational status and relative earnings since 1940, exemplified by their shift from domestic to clerical work. Logit analysis using census data from 1940‐80 and CPS data from 1988 shows that improvements in African American women's human capital explains just one‐sixth of their entry into clerical work. Changing labor market structures, particularly during the 1960s, appear far more important.

Higher Education and Occupational Status of Women in Egypt

It has been argued that a combination of favourable legislation, free education and increase in demand for professional manpower has helped women in Egypt in finding their rightful place in the labour force. This paper presents an empirical study of the status of highly educated women in Egypt. By developing a model to decompose average monthly earnings of the two sexes it will be shown that highly educated Egyptian women have indeed been able to establish themselves in most of the professional occupations. However, in certain fields, for example, managerial, there still seems to be some sort of opposition to females holding positions of responsibility. The decomposition analysis shows that only 11 % of the earnings differential between men and women is attributable to different occupational distributions. Managerial, law, economics and physical sciences seem to be the closed occupations.

Higher Education and Occupational Status of Women in Egypt

Higher Education and Occupational Status of Women in Egypt

Women's occupational status in Britain, France and the USA: explaining the difference

Using directly comparable data this article explores the lower occupational status overall of British employed women indicating the importance of social and employment policies to the amount of part‐time working by women and the occupational status of women's part‐time jobs in the three societies.

The occupational status and wages of women in the USSR.

In the USSR, the state statistics for the 1930s through the 1970s seem to reflect the development and completion of a process of active and almost universal transition of women from individual housework to socialized production. The statistics also provide a graphic picture of the most important tendencies in the qualitative aspects of women's labor. Determining the special characteristics of women's job activities within the general structure of employment in the USSR that have offers some idea of the progressiveness of the changes that have occurred in women's occupational position and the contradictions and unresolved problems remaing. Notable is the substantial change in the predominant types of work, particularly a marked decrease in the number of women employed in agriculture. The urbanization of the USSR, the development of an urban economy, and the high rates of industrialization all contributed to the expansion of labor, involvement in industry, construction, and the system of sociocultural, trade, and labor services. This process directly influenced the nature of women's labor force activity. During the 1930-70s period, the proportion of women employed in industrial work, as well as in work relating to information, increased from 13% to 52%. The proportion of women performing industrial labor which requires training increased from 5% to 13-14% during this period. The relative proportion of women doing different types of service-type work increased from 11% to 25%. Women participated most actively in creating and developing the system of medical and cultural services, children's nurseries and kindergartens, trade enterprises and restaurants. The proportion of women in charge of work collectives and organizing the activity of people was negligible at the end of the 1930s and had increased to 4-5% by the 1970s. Yet, about 40% of women working in the economy are employed in unskilled or low-skilled labor, which requires no vocational training. This index is about 30% for the entire employed population. Some specific differences in areas of work and in working conditions, and hence perhaps in pay, most likely exist owing to the psychosocial characteristics of females and to prohibitions against women working in various types of harmful jobs. Yet, these differences testify to elements of inequality continuing to persist in women's occupational status.