Women's Labor Force Research Articles

International migration and the advent of a new demographic era

AbstractThe paper explores whether international migration is linked to currently decreasing levels of fertility in high birth rates countries, thereby to the advent of a stage of population degrowth at the world's level. Methodology is in two steps. First, a global dataset is assembled comprising 13 variables for each country. For the country itself: emigrant stock, total fertility rate, girls' enrolment rate, women's labour force participation, global gender gap, and income per capita; for a fictitious average region of destination of migrants originating from this specific country, the last six variables. In the second step, links between origin and destination countries in terms of fertility levels and determinants are analysed using bivariate correlations. A remarkable fact emerges, namely national levels of fertility and their determinants vary quasi perfectly parallel at both ends of international migration corridors. Fertility at origin is not correlated to any phenomenon as much as to fertility, girls' school enrolment and gender equity at destination. Three complementary hypotheses explaining this apparently puzzling fact are discussed: transmission of norms by migrants; cultural similarities at both ends of migrant corridors; and congruency between the global diffusion of norms and the global migration of people. The conclusion highlights the original contribution of the paper, both to the demographic discipline (migration should also be dealt with as a remote determinant of fertility) and political debates on migration (erecting barriers to migration works against the preservation of earth).

The causal effect of economic freedom on female employment & education

AbstractWhile there are decades of evidence that economically free economies grow faster and are more productive than less free ones, there is less knowledge about the effect of economic freedom on groups that have traditionally been disadvantaged. I study the causal effects of large and sustained jumps in economic freedom on women's labor force participation and primary school enrollment. I find that these jumps have a positive and statistically significant effect in both cases–economic freedom is good for women's labor force opportunities and female education.

Women Labor Force Participation and Its Impact on Economic Growth: A Study of Latin America and the Caribbean Region

The problem being studied was that women were underrepresented in the labor force throughout Latin America and the Caribbean regions. In addition, although Latin America and the Caribbean regions experienced sound economic growth over the past decade, poverty levels dropped from 30% in 2021 to 28.5% in 2022. Development within low/low-middle income countries such as those within the Latin America and the Caribbean’s region, is more effected because of the reduction of gender inequality. This quantitative study explored how empowering women contributed to addressing and enhancing economic challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean. Additionally, it aimed to identify the relationship between women's empowerment and economic growth, while examining the influence of relevant variables on the economic development of these countries. This study was motivated by identifying a gap in the literature that made this research viable. Study found that there is statically a significant impact of women’ empowerment on economic growth, where an increase of 10 points in the women empowerment index, increases the growth of real GDP per capita by 2 percentage point per year. The data collected covers 29 countries and regions and covered metrics on women empowerment from 1982 – 2019, which spanned approximately 38 years. The study results concluded that women empowerment statistically impact GDP growth in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Women-Led Social Entrepreneurship

This study uses a phenomenological approach to explore the experiences of 30 women leaders in Peruvian social entrepreneurship. Through in-depth interviews analyzed using Moustakas's (1994) methodology, the research proposes a framework for understanding the initiation and development of women-led social enterprises, considering individual, social, cultural, and institutional factors. It also examines the impact of these ventures on the leaders and society, as well as the resources utilized. The findings offer insights for policymakers aiming to support entrepreneurial ecosystems. This study is unique in its focus on Peru, a country with the highest women labor force participation in Latin America and strong entrepreneurial activity.

A Quantitative Theory of the New Life Cycle of Women's Employment

“A new life cycle of women's labor force participation has emerged” (Goldin and Mitchell, 2017). Compared to previous cohorts, the employment profile of American college-educated married women born after the mid-1950s is flatter and higher with no hump but with a dip in the middle between ages 30-39. At the same time, these younger cohorts have delayed births, but their completed fertility rate has increased. I develop a quantitative theory to explain the changes in college-educated women's employment and fertility decisions across cohorts. First, I provide reduced-form evidence of a positive correlation between fertility and employment decisions. Second, I build a life-cycle model of labor supply and fertility decisions. My estimates indicate that the marginal returns to experience of college-educated married women increased by 33 percent. Although on-the-job accumulation of experience plays a crucial role in generating employment shifts and birth delays, the model does not generate an increase in the total fertility rate in the absence of infertility treatments. Thus, to understand why college-educated married women's life-cycle employment profiles and fertility decisions are changing, both factors must be considered.

Weak identification in discrete choice models

We study the impact of weak identification in discrete choice models, and provide insights into the determinants of identification strength in these models. Using these insights, we propose a novel test that can consistently detect weak identification in commonly applied discrete choice models, such as probit, logit, and many of their extensions. Furthermore, we demonstrate that when the null hypothesis of weak identification is rejected, Wald-based inference can be carried out using standard formulas and critical values. A Monte Carlo study compares our proposed testing approach against commonly applied weak identification tests. The results simultaneously demonstrate the good performance of our approach and the fundamental failure of using conventional weak identification tests for linear models in the discrete choice model context. Lastly, we apply our approach in two empirical examples: married women labor force participation, and US food aid and civil conflicts.

Double burden of malnutrition in 115 Latin American cities: An ecological analysis

AbstractBackgroundUsing harmonized aggregated data on health and socioeconomic environments in Latin American cities (from the Salud Urbana en América Latina (SALURBAL) study), we assessed the association of city‐level contextual factors with the prevalence of the double burden of malnutrition (DBM) in urban settings.MethodsThis ecological study used aggregated survey data from 115 Latin American cities within five countries (Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru) collected between 2008 and 2016. DBM was defined as the coexistence of stunting in children under 5 years and overweight/obesity among adult women at the city‐level. We ran ordinal logistic regression models to examine macrolevel contextual factors that might explain the city‐level DBM. Independent variables were city‐level socioeconomic development index, women educational attainment and women labor force.ResultsOut of 115 Latin American cities, 19 cities from five countries were experiencing a moderate to high burden of stunting and simultaneously a very high burden of overweight/obesity in adult women. All cities had overweight/obesity prevalence above 40%. A poor social environment, higher levels of women education and greater women labor force at the city level were associated with greater levels of DBM.ConclusionSome Latin American cities are still facing moderate and high DBM, while all cities are experiencing an alarming high burden of overweight/obesity. Social macro‐level factors such as poor social environment, high women education and high women labor force were associated with the coexistence of stunting in children and overweight/obesity in adult women.

How the other half works: Claudia Goldin's contributions to our understanding of women's labour market outcomes

AbstractThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the 2023 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel to Claudia Goldin “for having advanced our understanding of women's labour market outcomes”. This paper surveys Goldin's contributions, analysing women's labour force participation from the late 1700s through to the present. To document women's participation in the workforce, Goldin uncovered rich data from varied sources, from government reports and city directories to health surveys and university registration cards. She combined these data with economic theory to identify the factors affecting women's employment and to explore how we might achieve gender equity today. Her work has had an immense influence on how we understand the labour market, household decision‐making, and gender inequality.

Women's Opportunities to Migrate at a Young Age: Taking Advantage of the Momentum of Demographic Bonus

Indonesia is currently in a demographic bonus until 2035. Where the productive age shows that the number of young people in the age range of 15-29 in 2022 reaches 24.3 percent and this is the basic capital in development. There are several countries that have successfully managed the demographic bonus and become developed countries such as Japan, South Korea, China and Singapore. Based on modernization theory that economic development will affect the value system of society that leads to gender equality. The Demographic Bonus is a golden opportunity for a nation if utilized properly. But the question is whether Indonesia is ready to seize the opportunity. The purpose of this paper is how to reveal facts, phenomena, variables. The research method uses a literature study with a descriptive-qualitative analysis method based on literature review. The results of the study are that there are several reasons that encourage someone to migrate with economic, family, education and work motives. Currently, Indonesia faces challenges in human development. The arrival of young migrants will lead to population growth and human resource development. The decision to migrate between men and women has different driving and pulling factors, women's participation to migrate where women's labor force participation is only 53.41 percent compared to men's 83.87 percent.

Provincial Minimum Wage and Gender Disparity in Eastern Indonesia: A Panel Data Approach

This study aims to analyze the impact of the increase in the Provincial Minimum Wage on gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia. The data used is secondary data from the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) for the period 2017-2022, covering 14 provinces in the region. The analysis was carried out using panel data regression with the Random Effect Model (REM) method. The results showed that: The Provincial Minimum Wage had a negative impact on gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia during 2017-2022, meaning that any increase in the minimum wage could reduce gender inequality. Poverty negatively affects gender inequality, so an increase in poverty reduces gender inequality. The Women's Labor Force Participation Rate has a positive impact on gender inequality, so increasing women's participation in the labor force increases gender inequality. Economic growth negatively impacts gender inequality, which means that increased economic growth reduces gender inequality in Eastern Indonesia.

Free, full‐day programming for four‐year‐old children in Nova Scotia and women's labour market outcomes

AbstractDespite significant changes in gender norms over the 20th century and a substantial increase in women's labour force participation, women continue to provide the majority of unpaid child care. This poses a barrier to further improvements in women's labour force participation, especially when child care is limited, inaccessible or unaffordable. This paper explores the impact of substantial increases in child care accessibility and affordability on women's labour market outcomes by exploiting the rollout of free, full‐day programming for four‐year‐old children in Nova Scotia from 2017/18 to 2020/21 using a staggered difference‐in‐differences approach. The program led to a 21 percentage‐point increase in the labour force participation of mothers with four‐year‐old children in Nova Scotia, via increased employment. Unsurprisingly, these impacts are significantly larger for women whose youngest child is four years old.

An Overview of Women Entrepreneurs in India

Women participation in the labour force and admittance to well-mannered occupation is immensely crucial for a wide-range and sustainable progress of any nation. At the comprehensive level, larger contribution of women in the labour force is fine for the whole economy. In India, women labour force participation rate is increasing appreciably in recent years. Even though, the women labour force participation rate is lower than universal average, but it shows an increasing pattern. On the other hand, a range of socio-economic factors that affect the female participation in labour force cannot be ignored. This article throws light on the trends and growth of such women labour participation in the job market. Hefty number of hurdles and obstacles prolong to subsist for women community to get into the labour market and acquire well-mannered and civilized occupations. The women community is excessively put through a extensive range of challenges concerning with easy ingress to employment opportunities, alternative jobs, working circumstances, unforeseen situations, safety of jobs, equivalence in wages, prejudice and inequality treatment and work-life balance and family responsibilities.

Employment Generation and Livelihood: Special Reference to MGNREGA Scheme in Ranchi District of Jharkhand

The purpose of this article is to explore the employment conditions of the people living in the Ranchi district of Jharkhand, examine the status of the implementation of MGNREGA scheme in the State and study the merits of MGNREGA and its effect on the livelihood of the state. The research study has been conducted in Ranchi district of Jharkhand. The timeline for the study is from the year 2019-2020 to 2023-2024. The study is based on both exploratory and descriptive research design. The secondary sources of data were used for obtaining information from the population on various aspects of MGNREGA. The researcher observed that the introduction of the MNREGA has not made any significant difference and change in the living conditions of people in the Ranchi district. It was also noted that the employment rate has declined over these years. There was a huge gap in the demand and supply of employment. However, the only positive aspect of the scheme was that it led to an increment in the engagement of women labour force in the Ranchi district.

Development of Processing of Agricultural Products by Women in Villages and its Role on the Economy of Rural Families

The current research aims to investigate the development of the process of agricultural products by women and its role in the economy of rural families in Takhar villages. Although rural women in Afghanistan work with a traditional approach to promote agricultural education, they have been able to play a key role in promoting their agricultural products. The present study was carried out in Takhar province, Afghanistan, in 2023. The Cross-Sectional design method was used to collect the data. The research questionnaire includes five basic parts and two districts: (Kalafgan and Baharag). A multistage sampling technique was used to collect the data. In the present research, we selected 80 respondents randomly for the study. The findings of the present study show that agricultural products of rural women in Takhar province are considered one of the important achievements that provided not only the job of them but also their agricultural incomes a helpful and meaningful impact on the economy of their families, which means 47.5% of respondents agree that their agricultural products can play a good role in their family's economy, so 40% of them have a moderate view for this and the rest of them (12.5%) considered their agricultural products are not enough to grow of their family economy. Therefore, we can recognize that agricultural products can impact the economy of rural families in Takhar province. Also, the interview findings of the present research show that creating a foundation for the work of rural women in the field of agricultural products can help achieve the following goals: Women achieving independence in all matters, especially economic matters, getting Women rid of poverty unemployment and finding prosperity, empowerment and capacity building for rural women, freeing rural women from family violence due to economic problems, raising the economic level of rural families, proper use of rural women's labor force for the growth of the local economy and finally laying groundwork for the activation of women in all matters.

The impact of female education on fertility: evidence from Malawi Universal Primary Education program

Abstract This paper examines the impact of female education on fertility outcomes by using the Universal Primary Education (UPE) program in Malawi as a natural experiment. The finding indicates that the UPE policy improves rural women's educational attainment by 0.42 years and an additional year of female education decreases women's number of children ever born and the number of living children by 0.39 and 0.34, respectively. An analysis of potential mechanisms suggests that the decreased fertility rates are likely driven by the reduction in women's fertility preferences, the postponement of marriage, and the delay of motherhood. Contrarily, the study finds no evidence that increased female education affects women's labor force participation and the use of modern contraception.

Pengaruh Kesehatan Reproduksi Wanita dan Pemberdayaan Wanita Terhadap Tingkat Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Wanita di Indonesia

This study aims to find out and analyze how the influence of women's reproductive health and women's empowerment on the participation rate of the female workforce in Indonesia. This study used secondary data sourced from the Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics with the research variables grouped into two parts, namely the bond variable which in this study was determined as the female labor force participation rate and the independent variables consisting of women's life expectancy, young women's marriage, female mother, female education level, female per capita income and female involvement in parliament. This study uses panel data regression analysis with the selected method, namely the Common Effect Model (CEM). The results showed that women's life expectancy, young women's marriage, women's fertility rates and women's involvement in parliament each had a negative and insignificant effect on women's labor force participation. Women's education level has a negative and significant effect on female labor force participation and women's per capita income has a positive and significant effect on female labor force participation.

Women's Representation in Canadian Municipalities

This research note uses a new and comprehensive data set of 22,333 municipal elected positions in 3,363 municipalities across Canada to provide a systematic analysis of women's presence in municipal office. Drawing on findings from cross-national research about women's representation in local governments, we examine whether district type, council size, urban setting, women's workforce participation, and degree of conservatism among voters account for variation in the proportion of women elected as councillors and mayors. We find support for most, but not all, of the relevant factors in previous studies. Urban municipalities and municipalities with at-large and hybrid elections are associated with larger proportions of women mayors and councillors. Ideology also matters: the proportion of women in municipal office is smaller in conservative municipalities. Finally, we find no evidence that council size or women's labor force participation is related to women's representation among mayors or councillors.

Putting women back into the early modern economy: Work, occupations, and economic development

AbstractA dataset of just under 10,000 work tasks gleaned from court depositions that records women's as well as men's work, and unpaid as well as paid activities, prompts a reassessment of the transformation of the early modern economy and women's role within it. Rather than sectoral change in production activities with a growth of manufacturing at the expense of agriculture, the evidence suggests that work tasks changed little over time despite occupational specialization increasing. Women's labour force participation is shown to contribute 44 per cent of work in the economy, rather than 30 per cent as in previous estimates. This is partly because of the importance of commercialized housework and care work, which has been largely overlooked in existing models of the early modern economy. Turning to waged work, findings confirm that men's and women's participation in paid agricultural work were linked, with women being employed in greater numbers when men were not available. However, these trends had a strong relationship with access to land, a factor that has been neglected in comparison with demographic trends and the cost of consumables. The organization of work was transformed in the seventeenth century as the number of completely landless households increased rapidly.

Determinants of Female Labour Force Participation in Pakistan

Women's labour force affects the household economy as well as economic growth. Women's labour force contribution rate is also increasing gradually in Pakistan. We attempted to determine the determinants and impact of women's labour force contribution on households. Time series data were taken from World Bank and WDI from 1981 to 2020. Based on the unit root test the ARDL model was finalized. Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was used to verify the significance of the estimated ARDL-VECM model. There was a positive and negative association among selected variables. Variables such as female population, ratio of female workers, female headed households and female literacy rate positively and significantly impacted the female labour force participation whereas fertility rate and child mortality rate negatively but significantly determined the participation of females in labour force. Based on findings, government should focus on health and education sectors with special focus on females in order to provide reasonable educational and health facilities in order to support females participation in various economic activities of the country.

The Role Of Women's Labor Force Participation In Decreasing Aceh Province Poverty Rate

The poverty rate can decrease if there is a dual role of working women, the development of the times has proven to have implications for shifting the role of women in reducing poverty. Acehnese women, who used to be a social construction built on the basis of people's understanding of cultural values ​​and interpretations in the Islamic religion, have shifted to a new era where Acehnese women can take part in the household production process. This paper wants to analyze how big the role of women is working towards poverty reduction in Aceh Province. The results of the study show that the variable number of industries directly (X4) has a negative and not significant effect on wage estimates for Aceh Province