Women's Interagency HIV Study Research Articles

Menopause and Estrogen Associations With Gut Barrier, Microbial Translocation, and Immune Activation Biomarkers in Women With and Without HIV.

Estrogens may protect the gut barrier and reduce microbial translocation and immune activation, which are prevalent in HIV infection. We investigated relationships of the menopausal transition and estrogens with gut barrier, microbial translocation, and immune activation biomarkers in women with and without HIV. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies nested in the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Intestinal fatty acid binding protein, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, and soluble CD14 (sCD14) levels were measured in serum from 77 women (43 with HIV) before, during, and after the menopausal transition (∼6 measures per woman over ∼13 years). A separate cross-sectional analysis was conducted among 72 postmenopausal women with HIV with these biomarkers and serum estrogens. Women in the longitudinal analysis were a median age of 43 years at baseline. In piecewise, linear, mixed-effects models with cutpoints 2 years before and after the final menstrual period to delineate the menopausal transition, sCD14 levels increased over time during the menopausal transition (Beta [95% CI]: 38 [12 to 64] ng/mL/yr, P = 0.004), followed by a decrease posttransition (-46 [-75 to -18], P = 0.001), with the piecewise model providing a better fit than a linear model (P = 0.0006). In stratified analyses, these results were only apparent in women with HIV. In cross-sectional analyses, among women with HIV, free estradiol inversely correlated with sCD14 levels (r = -0.26, P = 0.03). Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and intestinal fatty acid binding protein levels did not appear related to the menopausal transition and estrogen levels. Women with HIV may experience heightened innate immune activation during menopause, possibly related to the depletion of estrogens.

Genetic predictors for bacterial vaginosis in women living with and at risk for HIV infection.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) disproportionally impacts Black and Hispanic women, placing them at risk for HIV, sexually transmitted infections and preterm birth. It is unknown whether there are differences by genetic ancestry in BV risk or whether polymorphisms associated with BV risk differ by ancestry. Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) participants with longitudinal Nugent scores were dichotomized as having (n=319, Nugent 7-10) or not having BV (n=367, Nugent 0-3). Genetic ancestry was defined by clustering of principal components from ancestry informative markers and further stratified by BV status. 627 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across 41 genes important in mucosal defense were identified in the WIHS GWAS. A logistic regression analysis was adjusted for nongenetic predictors of BV and self-reported race/ethnicity to assess associations between genetic ancestry and genotype. Self-reported race and genetic ancestry were associated with BV risk after adjustment for behavioral factors. Polymorphisms in mucosal defense genes including syndecans, cytokines and toll-like receptors (TLRs) were associated with BV in all ancestral groups. The common association of syndecan, cytokine and TLR genes and the importance of immune function and inflammatory pathways in BV, suggests these should be targeted for further research on BV pathogenesis and therapeutics.

Association of Androgen Hormones, Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin, and the Menopausal Transition With Incident Diabetes Mellitus in Women With and Without HIV.

HIV is associated with alterations in androgen hormone levels and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in women. Higher SHBG has been associated with a lower risk of diabetes in the general population, but the contribution of HIV, androgen hormones, SHBG, and menopausal phase to diabetes is unclear. From April 2003 through February 2020, 896 women with HIV (WWH) and 343 women without HIV (WWOH) from the Women's Interagency HIV Study with morning total testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), and SHBG levels were followed to assess for incident diabetes. Parametric regression models were used with age as the time scale and relative times (RT) as the measure of association of hormone level and menopausal phase with incident diabetes. Analyses incorporated time-dependent androgen hormone, SHBG levels, and menopausal phase and were adjusted for race/ethnicity, enrollment year, smoking status, BMI, hepatitis C virus status, and HIV-related factors. In total, 128 (14%) WWH and 47 (14%) WWOH developed diabetes. In WWH, a doubling of SHBG and DHEAS were associated with a 7% (RT = 1.07 [95% CI: 0.82 to 1.40] and 15% (RT = 1.15 [95% CI: 0.95 to 1.39]) longer time to diabetes, respectively; in WWOH, a doubling of SHBG and DHEAS were associated with 84% (RT = 1.84 [95% CI: 0.89 to 3.82]) and 41% (RT= 1.41 [95% CI: 0.82 to 2.44]) longer times to diabetes. Total testosterone was not associated. In WWH, later menopausal phase was associated with shorter times to diabetes. Despite alterations in androgen hormone and SHBG levels in HIV, regardless of HIV status, higher SHBG and DHEAS were associated with nonstatistically significant slower progression to diabetes. The menopausal transition may be a better hormonal indicator of diabetes risk in WWH.

Microbial Translocation and Gut Damage Are Associated With an Elevated Fast Score in Women Living With and Without HIV.

Steatohepatitis is common in persons living with HIV and may be associated with gut microbial translocation (MT). However, few studies have evaluated the gut-liver axis in persons living with HIV. In the Women's Interagency HIV Study, we examined the associations of HIV and circulating biomarkers linked to MT and gut damage using the FibroScan-aspartate aminotransferase (FAST) score, a noninvasive surrogate for steatohepatitis with advanced fibrosis. Among 883 women with HIV and 354 without HIV, we used multivariable regression to examine the associations of HIV and serum biomarkers linked to MT and gut damage (kynurenine and tryptophan ratio, intestinal fatty acid-binding protein, soluble CD14, and soluble CD163) with a log-transformed FAST score after adjusting for key covariates. We used a path analysis and mediation models to determine the mediating effect of each biomarker on the association of HIV with FAST. HIV infection was associated with a 49% higher FAST score. MT biomarker levels were higher in women with HIV than women without HIV (P < .001 for each). MT biomarkers mediated 13% to 32% of the association of HIV and FAST score. Biomarkers linked to MT and gut damage are associated with a higher FAST score and mediate the association of HIV with a higher FAST score. Our findings suggest that MT may be an important mechanism by which HIV increases the risk of steatohepatitis with advanced fibrosis.

Brief Report: Substance Use Care Continuum in Women With and Without HIV in the Southern United States.

Substance use (SU) contributes to poor outcomes among persons living with HIV. Women living with HIV (WWH) in the United States are disproportionately affected in the South, and examining SU patterns, treatment, and HIV outcomes in this population is integral to addressing HIV and SU disparities. WWH and comparable women without HIV (WWOH) who enrolled 2013-2015 in the Women's Interagency HIV Study Southern sites (Atlanta, Birmingham/Jackson, Chapel Hill, and Miami) and reported SU (self-reported nonmedical use of drugs) in the past year were included. SU and treatment were described annually from enrollment to the end of follow-up. HIV outcomes were compared by SU treatment engagement. At enrollment, among 840 women (608 WWH, 232 WWOH), 18% (n = 155) reported SU in the past year (16% WWH, 24% WWOH); 25% (n = 38) of whom reported SU treatment. Over time, 30%, 21%, and 18% reported SU treatment at 1, 2, and 3 years, respectively, which did not significantly differ by HIV status. Retention in HIV care did not differ by SU treatment. Viral suppression was significantly higher in women who reported SU treatment only at enrollment ( P = 0.03). We identified a substantial gap in SU treatment engagement, with only a quarter reporting treatment utilization, which persisted over time. SU treatment engagement was associated with viral suppression at enrollment but not at other time points or with retention in HIV care. These findings can identify gaps and guide future strategies for integrating HIV and SU care for WWH.

HIV Interacts with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder to Impact Fear Psychophysiology in Trauma-Exposed Black Women.

The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among people living with HIV (PLWH) is higher than in the general population and can impact health behaviors. The influence of HIV on PTSD psychophysiology requires further investigation due to implications for the treatment of PTSD in PLWH. Utilizing fear-potentiated startle (FPS), we aimed to interrogate the influence of PTSD and HIV on fear responses. Women (18-65 years of age) recruited from the Women's Interagency HIV Study in Atlanta, GA (n = 70, 26 without HIV and 44 with HIV), provided informed consent and completed a semistructured interview to assess trauma exposure and PTSD symptom severity. Participants also underwent an FPS paradigm to assess fear acquisition and extinction: Psychophysiological indices that measure how individuals learn new fear and then subsequently attempt to suppress this fear. Women with PTSD, who did not have HIV, exhibited a greater startle response compared to women without PTSD or HIV during late acquisition to both the danger cue, reinforced conditioned stimulus (CS+, p = 0.013)), and the safety cue, non-reinforced conditioned stimulus (CS-, p = 0.046)), whereas women living with HIV (WLH) and PTSD demonstrated blunted fear responses compared to women with PTSD only. During extinction, WLH comorbid with PTSD exhibited an increased fear response during the extinction period in comparison to all other groups (p = 0.023). Women without PTSD demonstrated a reduction in the fear response during extinction regardless of HIV status. Our findings indicate that HIV further modifies fear psychophysiology in WLH with comorbid PTSD, highlighting the importance of considering HIV status in conjunction with PTSD treatment.

Epigenetic Aging and Musculoskeletal Outcomes in a Cohort of Women Living With HIV.

The relationship between accelerated epigenetic aging and musculoskeletal outcomes in women with HIV (WWH) has not been studied. We measured DNA methylation age using the Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip in a cohort from the Women's Interagency HIV Study (n = 190) with measures of bone mineral density (BMD) and physical function. We estimated 6 biomarkers of epigenetic aging-epigenetic age acceleration (EAA), extrinsic EAA, intrinsic EAA, GrimAge, PhenoAge, and DNA methylation-estimated telomere length-and evaluated associations of epigenetic aging measures with BMD and physical function. We also performed epigenome-wide association studies to examine associations of DNA methylation signatures with BMD and physical function. This study included 118 WWH (mean age, 49.7 years; 69% Black) and 72 without HIV (mean age, 48.9 years; 69% Black). WWH had higher EAA (mean ± SD, 1.44 ± 5.36 vs -1.88 ± 5.07; P < .001) and lower DNA methylation-estimated telomere length (7.13 ± 0.31 vs 7.34 ± 0.23, P < .001) than women without HIV. There were no significant associations between accelerated epigenetic aging and BMD. Rather, measures of accelerated epigenetic aging were associated with lower physical function. Accelerated epigenetic aging was observed in WWH as compared with women without HIV and was associated with lower physical function in both groups.

A Bayesian approach for investigating the pharmacogenetics of combination antiretroviral therapy in people with HIV.

Combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) with at least three different drugs has become the standard of care for people with HIV (PWH) due to its exceptional effectiveness in viral suppression. However, many ART drugs have been reported to associate with neuropsychiatric adverse effects including depression, especially when certain genetic polymorphisms exist. Pharmacogenetics is an important consideration for administering combination ART as it may influence drug efficacy and increase risk for neuropsychiatric conditions. Large-scale longitudinal HIV databases provide researchers opportunities to investigate the pharmacogenetics of combination ART in a data-driven manner. However, with more than 30 FDA-approved ART drugs, the interplay between the large number of possible ART drug combinations and genetic polymorphisms imposes statistical modeling challenges. We develop a Bayesian approach to examine the longitudinal effects of combination ART and their interactions with genetic polymorphisms on depressive symptoms in PWH. The proposed method utilizes a Gaussian process with a composite kernel function to capture the longitudinal combination ART effects by directly incorporating individuals' treatment histories, and a Bayesian classification and regression tree to account for individual heterogeneity. Through both simulation studies and an application to a dataset from the Women's Interagency HIV Study, we demonstrate the clinical utility of the proposed approach in investigating the pharmacogenetics of combination ART and assisting physicians to make effective individualized treatment decisions that can improve health outcomes for PWH.

HIV, HIV-specific Factors and Myocardial Disease in Women.

People with HIV (PWH) have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) has documented higher myocardial fibrosis, inflammation and steatosis in PWH, but studies have mostly relied on healthy volunteers as comparators and focused on men. We investigated the associations of HIV and HIV-specific factors with CMR phenotypes in female participants enrolled in the Women's Interagency HIV Study's New York and San Francisco sites. Primary phenotypes included myocardial native (n) T1 (fibro-inflammation), extracellular volume fraction (ECV, fibrosis) and triglyceride content (steatosis). Associations were evaluated with multivariable linear regression, and results pooled or meta-analyzed across centers. Among 261 women with HIV (WWH, total n = 362), 76.2% had undetectable viremia at CMR. For the 82.8% receiving continuous antiretroviral therapy (ART) in the preceding 5 years, adherence was 51.7%, and 71.3% failed to achieve persistent viral suppression (42.2% with peak viral load < 200 cp/mL). Overall, WWH showed higher nT1 than women without HIV (WWOH) after full adjustment. This higher nT1 was more pronounced in those with antecedent or current viremia or nadir CD4+ count < 200 cells/μL, the latter also associated with higher ECV. WWH and current CD4+ count < 200 cells/μL had less cardiomyocyte steatosis. Cumulative exposure to specific ART showed no associations. Compared with sociodemographically similar WWOH, WWH on ART exhibit higher myocardial fibro-inflammation, which is more prominent with unsuppressed viremia or CD4+ lymphopenia. These findings support the importance of improved ART adherence strategies, along with better understanding of latent infection, to mitigate cardiac end-organ damage in this population.

"As I Grew Older, My Life Got Better": Conceptions of Successful Aging among Older Women Living with or at Risk of HIV.

Successful aging (SA) is an important target for HIV care. However, we have insufficient understanding of how older women living with HIV (OWLH) in the US define SA. We explored conceptions of SA by OWLH and older women at risk of HIV and examined whether SA conceptions differed by (1) HIV serostatus, and (2) participation in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). These analyses were part of a larger mixed-methods study with a sequential design. Participants were recruited at two clinical WIHS sites. We enrolled both WIHS participants and non-WIHS clinic patients. Our sample was 84% Black and included 29 OWLH and 15 older women at risk of HIV. We conducted 21 semi-structured interviews and four focus groups. The dataset was analyzed using descriptive, comparative, and relational analysis. We found four interlinked themes: life course perspective, accepting and celebrating aging, taking care of yourself, and looking good. The life course perspective was a core theme: participants assessed their aging in comparison to their earlier life hardships. These themes were similarly present among OWLH and older women at risk of HIV, although OWLH emphasized taking care of HIV. SA conceptualizations by OWLH did not differ whether or not they participated in the WIHS. Women living with or at risk of HIV may experience severe hardships throughout their lives. Overcoming these hardships may be linked to SA. Assessing the needs and connecting women to resources and programs are critical for SA promotion.

Mediation analysis of chronic kidney disease risk factors using kidney biomarkers in women living with HIV.

Novel urinary biomarkers reflecting kidney tubule health are associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) risk in persons living with HIV. However, it is unknown whether these biomarkers provide mechanistic insight into the associations between clinical risk factors for CKD and subsequent CKD risk. Among 636 women living with HIV in the Women's Interagency HIV Study with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) >60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 , we used a counterfactual approach to causal mediation analysis to evaluate the extent to which systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), hemoglobin a1c (Hba1c) and serum albumin associations with incident CKD were mediated by eight urine proteins. These biomarkers reflect proximal tubular reabsorptive dysfunction (α1-microglobulin [a1m], β2-microglobulin, trefoil factor 3); tubular injury (interleukin 18 [IL-18], kidney injury molecule 1 [KIM-1]); kidney repair (epidermal growth factor); tubular reserve (uromodulin); and glomerular injury (urinary albumin). Incident CKD was defined as eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 measured at two consecutive 6-month visits with an average annual eGFR decline ≥3% per year. During a median follow-up of 7 years, 11% developed CKD. Urinary albumin and KIM-1 mediated 32% (95% CI: 13.4%, 76.6%) and 23% (6.9%, 60.7%) of the association between SBP and incident CKD, respectively; and 19% (5.1%, 42.3%) and 22% (8.1%, 45.7%) of the association between DBP and incident CKD, respectively. Urinary albumin, α1m, and IL-18 were significant mediators of the association between Hba1c and incident CKD. None of the eight biomarkers mediated the association between serum albumin and incident CKD. Among women living with HIV, several urinary biomarkers reflecting distinct dimensions of kidney health may partially explain the associations between SBP, DBP, and Hba1c and subsequent CKD risk.

Declining Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis Diagnosed by Wet Mount in a Cohort of U.S. Women With and Without HIV.

Background: Women living with HIV (WLWH) are often coinfected with Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), and annual screening is recommended. Our goal was to assess differences in TV prevalence at study entry and over time in enrollment cohorts of the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Methods: In a multisite study, TV was diagnosed by wet mount microscopy. Prevalence was determined across four enrollment waves: 1994-1995, 2001-2002, 2011-2012, and 2013-2015. Generalized estimating equation multivariable logistic regression models assessed changes in visit prevalence across waves after controlling for HIV disease severity and other risks. Results: At 63,824 person-visits (3,508 WLWH and 1,262 women without HIV), TV was diagnosed by wet mount at 1979 visits (3.1%). After multivariable adjustment, HIV status was not associated with TV detection, which was more common among younger women, women with multiple partners, and irregular condom use. All enrollment waves showed a decline in TV detection over time, although p-value for trend did not reach significance for most recent waves. To explore the potential utility of screening among WLWH, we assessed rates of TV detection among women without appreciable vaginal discharge on examination. Initial TV prevalence among asymptomatic women was 3.5%, and prevalence decreased to 0.5%-1% in the most recent wave (2013-2015) (p-trend <0.0001). Conclusions: In this cohort, TV rates are low among WLWH, and HIV does not increase TV risk. Screening may benefit newly diagnosed WLWH, women with risk factors, or those receiving care sporadically but is unlikely to further reduce the low rate of TV among women in care, especially older women without multiple partners. The clinical trials registration number for WIHS is NCT00000797.

BARRIERS TO SUCCESSFUL AGING AMONG OLDER WOMEN AND MEN LIVING WITH HIV

Abstract This study identified and compared barriers to successful aging (SA) among older women and men living with HIV. Participants were recruited through 1) the Women’s Interagency HIV Study (WIHS), Atlanta and Brooklyn sites; and 2) the HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program at the University of California, San Diego. Our sample included 31 participants living with HIV: 17 women and 14 men, ages 52 to 73 years, 58% African American. We conducted semi-structured interviews, exploring SA with HIV. The interviews (~90 minutes long) were audio recorded, fully transcribed, and imported into MAXQDA software for analysis. Thematic and comparative analyses were conducted within a social-constructivist framework. We uncovered several themes related to SA barriers that were shared by women and men: challenging chronic conditions, stigmas, substance use, and lack of resources. We also found differences. While men stressed dreading old age and loneliness, women emphasized stress and ‘giving up’ as barriers to SA.

Life course history of physical and sexual abuse is associated with cardiovascular disease risk among women living with and without HIV.

Sexual and physical abuse predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) among women in the general population. Women living with HIV (WLWH) report more abuse and have higher CVD risk compared with other women, yet associations between abuse history and CVD have not been considered among WLWH. This study fills this gap, and describes possible pathways linking abuse to CVD risk among WLWH and women living without HIV (WLWOH). Using 25 years of data from the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS; n = 2734; WLWH n = 1963; WLWOH n = 771), we used longitudinal generalized estimating equations (GEE) to test associations between sexual and physical abuse with CVD risk. Framingham (FRS-H) and the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association-Pooled Cohort Equation (ACC/AHA-PCE) scores were examined. Analyses were stratified by HIV-serostatus. Among WLWH, childhood sexual abuse was associated with higher CVD risk ( βFRS-H = 1.25, SE = 1.08, P = 0.005; βACC/AHA-PCE = 1.14, SE = 1.07, P = 0.04) compared with no abuse. Adulthood sexual abuse was associated with higher CVD risk for WLWH ( βFRS-H = 1.39, SE = 1.08, P < 0.0001) and WLWOH ( βFRS-H = 1.58, SE = 1.14, P = 0.0006). Childhood physical abuse was not associated with CVD risk for either group. Adulthood physical abuse was associated with CVD risk for WLWH ( βFRS-H = 1.44, SE = 1.07; P < 0.0001, βACC/AHA-PCE = 1.18, SE = 1.06, P = 0.002) and WLWOH ( βFRS-H = 1.68, SE = 1.12, P < 0.0001; βACC/AHA-PCE = 1.24, SE = 1.11, P = 0.03). Several pathway factors were significant, including depression, smoking, and hepatitis C infection. Life course abuse may increase CVD risk among WLWH and women at high risk of acquiring HIV. Some comorbidities help explain the associations. Assessing abuse experiences in clinical encounters may help contextualize cardiovascular risk among this vulnerable population and inform intervention.

Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, and Control Among Women Living With and Without HIV in the US South.

Hypertension-related diseases are major causes of morbidity among women living with HIV. We evaluated cross-sectional associations of race/ethnicity and HIV infection with hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control. Among women recruited into Southern sites of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (2013-2015), hypertension was defined as (1) systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg according to clinical guidelines when data were collected, (2) self-report of hypertension, or (3) use of antihypertensive medication. Awareness was defined as self-report of hypertension, and treatment was self-report of any antihypertensive medication use. Blood pressure control was defined as <140/90 mm Hg at baseline. Prevalence ratios for each hypertension outcome were estimated through Poisson regression models with robust variance estimators adjusted for sociodemographic, behavioral, and clinical risk factors. Among 712 women, 56% had hypertension and 83% were aware of their diagnosis. Of those aware, 83% were using antihypertensive medication, and 63% of those treated had controlled hypertension. In adjusted analyses, non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women had 31% and 48% lower prevalence of hypertension than non-Hispanic Black women, respectively. Women living with HIV who had hypertension were 19% (P = .04) more likely to be taking antihypertension medication when compared with women living without HIV. In this study population of women living with and without HIV in the US South, the prevalence of hypertension was lowest among Hispanic women and highest among non-Hispanic Black women. Despite similar hypertension prevalence, women living with HIV were more likely to be taking antihypertensive medication when compared with women living without HIV.

The menopause-related gut microbiome: associations with metabolomics, inflammatory protein markers, and cardiometabolic health in women with HIV.

This study aimed to identify menopause-related gut microbial features, as well as their related metabolites and inflammatory protein markers, and link with cardiometabolic risk factors in women with and without HIV. In the Women's Interagency HIV Study, we performed shotgun metagenomic sequencing on 696 stool samples from 446 participants (67% women with HIV), and quantified plasma metabolomics and serum proteomics in a subset (~86%). We examined the associations of menopause (postmenopausal vs premenopausal) with gut microbial features in a cross-sectional repeated-measures design and further evaluated those features in relation to metabolites, proteins, and cardiometabolic risk factors. Different overall gut microbial composition was observed by menopausal status in women with HIV only. We identified a range of gut microbial features that differed between postmenopausal and premenopausal women with HIV (but none in women without HIV), including abundance of 32 species and functional potentials involving 24 enzymatic reactions and lower β-glucuronidase bacterial gene ortholog. Specifically, highly abundant species Faecalibacterium prausnitzii , Bacteroides species CAG:98 , and Bifidobacterium adolescentis were depleted in postmenopausal versus premenopausal women with HIV. Menopause-depleted species (mainly Clostridia ) in women with HIV were positively associated with several glycerophospholipids, while negatively associated with imidazolepropionic acid and fibroblast growth factor 21. Mediation analysis suggested that menopause may decrease plasma phosphatidylcholine plasmalogen C36:1 and C36:2 levels via reducing abundance of species F. prausnitzii and Acetanaerobacterium elongatum in women with HIV. Furthermore, waist-to-hip ratio was associated with menopause-related microbes, metabolites, and fibroblast growth factor 21 in women with HIV. Menopause was associated with a differential gut microbiome in women with HIV, related to metabolite and protein profiles that potentially contribute to elevated cardiometabolic risk.

Plasma Biomarkers of Alzheimer Disease in Women With and Without HIV

Blood-based biomarkers associated with increased risk of Alzheimer disease (AD) are understudied in people living with and without HIV, particularly women. To determine whether baseline or 1-year changes in plasma amyloid-β40 (Aβ40), Aβ42, ratio of Aβ42 to Aβ40, total tau (t-tau), phosphorylated tau 231 (p-tau231), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and/or neurofilament light chain (NFL) are associated with neuropsychological performance (NP) among women living with HIV (WLWH) and women living without HIV (WLWOH). This longitudinal, prospective, cohort study with 1-year repeated clinical measures (NP only measured once) and biospecimen collection occurred between 2017 and 2019. Participants were women aged 40 years or older from 10 clinical research sites in cities across the US that were part of the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Data analysis was conducted from April to December 2022. Laboratory-confirmed HIV status and AD biomarkers. Sociodemographically adjusted NP T-scores (attention and working memory, executive function, processing speed, memory, learning, verbal fluency, motor function, and global performance) were the primary outcomes. Baseline and 1-year fasting plasma Aβ40, Aβ42, t-tau, p-tau231, GFAP, and NFL levels were measured and analyzed using multivariable linear regression. The study consisted of 307 participants (294 aged ≥50 years [96%]; 164 African American or Black women [53%]; 214 women with a high school education or higher [70%]; 238 women who were current or former smokers [78%]; and 236 women [77%] who were overweight or obese [body mass index >25]) including 209 WLWH and 98 WLWOH. Compared with WLWOH at baseline, WLWH performed worse on learning (mean [SD] T-score 47.8 [11.3] vs 51.4 [10.5]), memory (mean [SD] T-score 48.3 [11.6] vs 52.4 [10.2]), verbal fluency (mean [SD] T-score 48.3 [9.8] vs 50.7 [8.5]), and global (mean [SD] T-score 49.2 [6.8] vs 51.1 [5.9]) NP assessments. Baseline median Aβ40, GFAP, and NFL levels were higher among WLWH vs WLWOH. There were no differences in 1-year biomarker change by HIV serostatus. Lower learning, memory, and motor NP were associated with 1-year Aβ40 increase; lower learning and motor with Aβ42 increase; lower motor with p-tau231 increase; and lower processing speed, verbal fluency and motor with NFL increase in the entire sample. Among WLWH, a 1-year increase in Aβ40 from baseline to follow-up was associated with worse learning, memory, and global NP; a 1-year increase in t-tau with worse executive function; and a 1-year increase in NFL with worse processing speed. Among WLWOH, a 1-year increase in Aβ40 and Aβ42 were associated with poorer memory performance and NFL was associated with poorer motor performance. These findings suggest that increases in certain plasma AD biomarkers are associated with NP in WLWH and WLWOH and may be associated with later onset of AD, and measuring these biomarkers could be a pivotal advancement in monitoring aging brain health and development of AD among women with and without HIV.

Subclinical Atherosclerosis Across the Menopausal Transition in Women With and Without HIV.

The menopausal transition is a pivotal time of cardiovascular risk, but knowledge is limited in HIV. We studied longitudinal carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (2004-2019; 979 women/3247 person-visits; 72% with HIV). Among women with HIV only, those who transitioned had greater age-related CIMT progression compared to those remaining premenopausal (difference in slope = 1.64 µm/year, P = .002); and CIMT increased over time in the pretransition (3.47 µm/year, P = .002) and during the menopausal transition (9.41 µm/year, P < .0001), but not posttransition (2.9 µm/year, P = .19). In women with HIV, menopause may accelerate subclinical atherosclerosis as measured by CIMT.

Common antiretroviral combinations are associated with somatic depressive symptoms in women with HIV.

While modern antiretroviral therapy (ART) is highly effective and safe, depressive symptoms have been associated with certain ART drugs. We examined the association between common ART regimens and depressive symptoms in women with HIV (WWH) with a focus on somatic vs. nonsomatic symptoms. Analysis of longitudinal data from the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Participants were classified into three groups based on the frequency of positive depression screening (CES-D ≥16): chronic depression (≥50% of visits since study enrollment), infrequent depression (<50% of visits), and never depressed (no visits). Novel Bayesian machine learning methods building upon a subset-tree kernel approach were developed to estimate the combined effects of ART regimens on depressive symptoms in each group after covariate adjustment. The analysis included 1538 WWH who participated in 12 924 (mean = 8.4) visits. The mean age was 49.9 years, 72% were Black, and 14% Hispanic. In the chronic depression group, combinations including tenofovir alafenamide and cobicistat-boosted elvitegravir and/or darunavir were associated with greater somatic symptoms of depression, whereas those combinations containing tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and efavirenz or rilpivirine were associated with less somatic depressive symptoms. ART was not associated with somatic symptoms in the infrequent depression or never depressed groups. ART regimens were not associated with nonsomatic symptoms in any group. Specific ART combinations are associated with somatic depressive symptoms in WWH with chronic depression. Future studies should consider specific depressive symptoms domains as well as complete drug combinations when assessing the relationship between ART and depression.

Sex Hormones, the Stool Microbiome, and Subclinical Atherosclerosis in Women With and Without HIV.

Cardioprotective roles of endogenous estrogens may be particularly important in women with HIV, who have reduced estrogen exposure and elevated cardiovascular disease risk. The gut microbiome metabolically interacts with sex hormones, but little is known regarding possible impact on cardiovascular risk. To analyze potential interplay of sex hormones and gut microbiome in cardiovascular risk. Among 197 postmenopausal women in the Women's Interagency HIV Study, we measured 15 sex hormones in serum and assessed the gut microbiome in stool. Presence of carotid artery plaque was determined (B-mode ultrasound) in a subset (n = 134). We examined associations of (i) sex hormones and stool microbiome, (ii) sex hormones and plaque, and (iii) sex hormone-related stool microbiota and plaque, adjusting for potential confounders. Participant median age was 58 years and the majority were living with HIV (81%). Sex hormones (estrogens, androgens, and adrenal precursors) were associated with stool microbiome diversity and specific species, similarly in women with and without HIV. Estrogens were associated with higher diversity, higher abundance of species from Alistipes, Collinsella, Erysipelotrichia, and Clostridia, and higher abundance of microbial β-glucuronidase and aryl-sulfatase orthologs, which are involved in hormone metabolism. Several hormones were associated with lower odds of carotid artery plaque, including dihydrotestosterone, 3α-diol-17G, estradiol, and estrone. Exploratory mediation analysis suggested that estrone-related species, particularly from Collinsella, may mediate the protective association of estrone with plaque. Serum sex hormones are significant predictors of stool microbiome diversity and composition. The gut microbiome may play a role in estrogen-related cardiovascular protection.