Participation Of Women In Employment Research Articles

Discovering the Connection Between Women Entrepreneurship and Economic Complexity: Evidence from Pakistan

Women’s participation and support in the business sector have recently emerged as essential to economic diversification in developing countries such as Pakistan. Women entrepreneurs can help a country progress by expanding trade. The impact of women’s entrepreneurship on economic complexity is still underexplored. The current research aims to fill a lacuna in previous studies by determining the impact of women's entrepreneurship on economic complexity in Pakistan that was less apparent in extant literature in the case of Pakistan, to the best of the researchers' knowledge. Annual time-series data from 1991 to 2021 have been collected for the present research. The Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bound method has been utilized for analysis. The findings demonstrate that women’s entrepreneurship has positively and significantly impacted economic complexity in the long term. At a 1% significance level, a 1% increase in female entrepreneurship raises economic complexity by 0.269%. The participation of women in employment raises productivity, which in turn raises diversification and innovation, as well as the economic complexity in a country. Thus, it is essential to improve gender equality by offering educational and entrepreneurial possibilities for women. Furthermore, it provides employment-related skills and the fundamental level of business loans.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FLEXIBLE WORK ARRANGEMENTS (FWAS) AND ITS IMPACT FOR WORK-LIFE BALANCE OF WOMEN’S WORKFORCE

Flexible Work Arrangements (FWAs) have become attractive aspects of working models, in response to the changing needs of the modern workforce and advancement in digital technologies especially after the Covid 19 Pandemic. FWAs promote achieving work-life balance (WLB) among workers that limits stress and permits family care. FWAs are consistent with several goals of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in achieving gender equality, good health and well-being, decent work and economic growth. International Labour Organization (ILO) also promotes productive work, decent working time and combining work, family and personal life. Hence, this qualitative study which can be considered as action research-based will study the the implementation of (FWAs) in resolving the issue of lower rate of female labor force in employment, challenges encountered by female led households to secure jobs, and accommodate the women in professional occupation. The data is collected from previous studies and reports with regard to the issue of women participation in the workforce and work-life balance. The objective of this research is to examine Malaysian women’s participation trend in the workforce and the extent the FWAs and WLB influence the trend. Additionally, it explores some practices of FWAs in promoting WLB at workplaces both in public and private sectors. Finally, the paper is aimed to investigate the Malaysian existing policies on FWAs in supporting WLB. This research found that Malaysia shows a consistent low participation of women in employment compared to men. Some prevalent reasons resulting in the trend are marriage status, female led households who had difficulty to be in employment, and higher involvement of women in informal sectors. All these reasons are closely associated with difficulty to balance work and life. The implementation of FWAs at selected workplaces either in public or private sectors is positively accepted by both employers and employees but with lack of evidence to confirm the implementation is truly motivated by WLB ideology. Lastly, the Malaysian approach is to remain the implementation of FWAs on a voluntary basis supported by general provisions in the Employment Act 1955 regarding the right to request for FWAs and internal workplace policies to manage the requests.

Women’s life course and precarious housing in older age: an Australian qualitative study

With increasing numbers of older Australian women facing housing precarity, it is essential to understand how this social problem persists and grows despite structural change with greater participation of women in employment and education, and greater societal recognition of their rights. We drew on a life course framework to consider the interaction of personal and societal conditions to understand how older women come to be precariously housed in older age. Life history interviews with 30 older women who accessed social housing due to housing precarity were completed. The qualitative analysis identified three groups: women who were lifelong renters by choice and then struggled with private rental costs on a pension in older age; women who carried into older age accumulated disadvantage over their lives; and women who lost home ownership despite initial advantages in education, employment, and assets. Although events such as ill health can have a longstanding impact on women’s lives and housing security, it is the interaction of multiple structural and personal circumstances across the life course that result in later life housing precarity. The impact of violence including the striking effect of economic abuse on women’s housing pathways was a dominant finding in our study.

Socio-Economic Analysis of Women Time-Use Pattern With Regard To Carrying Out ESNA Activities In Hilly Rural Regions Of Uttarakhand

Hilly rural regions of the state of Uttarakhand have always faced the issue of ‘Area Deprivation’ and ‘poverty traps’ mainly because of their harsh geographical settings and poor infrastructural facilities along with the problems in resource delivery and their accessibility. These issues have led to continuous out-migration from these regions of the state. Women of these deprived regions, amidst these issues play a prominent role in not only within their households but also in the economy of these regions. The major reason for the dominant role of women is the customary division of gender role and huge rural-out migration mainly of male youths from these regions of the state. Although the women participation in employment has been increasing in these regions but the major section of this population even after being over-burdened by work is engaged in activities which are categorised as ‘unpaid’. Her work participation in SNA activities goes unpaid as she takes part in such activities largely as helper or subsidiary worker while her higher rate of participation in E-SNA activities by nature is considered as non-economical or categorised as unpaid activities. The participation of Women in E-SNA activities leads to ‘time poverty’ among women, as it reduces the time which they could contribute in economic activities. Further the higher time spending by women in such activities also reduces their time in self-care leading to poor health status and even in pulling them off from education mainly in case of teenage girls. The present paper using the time use survey not only examines the gender-based participation in E-SNA activities but also examines the socio-economic and demographic factors which lead to higher time spending in E-SNA activities by rural women of these hill rural regions of the state. The study further introspects the impact of few prominent government policy interventions to reduce the work burden of women mainly in E-SNA activities.

Gender sensitive policies and participation of women: a case of mgnregs in Kerala

Gender equality and empowerment of women are widely recognized as catalysts for the rapid progress of the economy as women constitute half of the population in India. In a male centric society the overall human development is possible only with empowerment of women who currently lag far behind their male counter parts in terms of education, health, earnings and decision making both at household and parliamentary levels. Expanding opportunities for women plays a central role in the process of achieving developmental goal. To ensure gender equality and women empowerment, the specific policy intervention of government is required. One such gender sensitive policy by Government of India is MGNREGS. The present paper analyses the gender sensitive provisions of the MGNREGS and participation of women in employment. It also analyses the reason for high participation of women in MGNREGS in Kerala. Keywords: Gender Responsive Budgeting, MGNREGS, Women.

Analyzing Female Employment Trends in South Asia

This paper studies employment patterns and trends in South Asia to shed light on determinants of extremely low female employment rates in the region. After a comprehensive literature review, the authors use employment data from about one hundred censuses and surveys from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka to compare employment trends across countries over time. They work through data inconsistencies to standardize definitions of variables to compare demographic and labor market determinants: age, sector, contract type, location, and education. The paper finds that (i) overall since 2001, women's employment participation across South Asian countries has been low and broadly unchanged; (ii) the gender employment gap emerges more clearly in middle age brackets; (iii) rural female employment is higher than urban; (iv) agriculture is the economic sector accounting for the greatest share of female employment, although this is slowly changing in some countries, and; (v) women with mid-level education tend to have lower employment rates than those with both lower and higher education.

Adolescence and Gender Equality in Health

Adolescence and Gender Equality in Health

Shifts in Women's Paid Employment Participation During the World War II Era and Later Life Health.

The greatest proportional increase in female labor force participation of the 20th century occurred post-World War II (WWII) when shifts in policy and growth in service and clerical work spurred an influx of women into the labor force. Research has yet to demonstrate how variation in women's employment participation during this era related to their later life health. We examined how shifts in women's employment patterns during the WWII era influenced their disease and mortality risk. Using data from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study, we evaluated the employment history of a cohort of 6,158 women across the U.S. during the WWII era. We fit logistic regression models estimating the association between involvement in the workforce over 5-year intervals and health (i.e., cancer, cardiovascular disease, and mortality). We also ran models with a younger cohort (n= 12,435) of women to assess how associations between work and health varied between cohorts. The older cohort of women who entered the workforce before the onset of WWII showed mixed to no differences in health relative to homemakers. The younger cohort of women who entered the workforce during WWII tended to show negative relationships between work during their late/post-childbearing years and health, experiencing higher risks for mortality. The policies, social forces, and broader environment in which women live appear to significantly influence how involvement in the workforce over the life course influences health. Women whose entry into the workforce was initially encouraged socially but were later confronted with opposition experienced increased health risks.

Determinants of Off-farm Employment Participation of Women in Rural Uganda

Off-farm employment in rural areas can be a major contributor to rural poverty reduction and decent rural employment. While women are highly active in the agricultural sector, they are less active than men in off-farm employment. This study analyzes the determinants of participation in off-farm employment of women in rural Uganda. The study is based on a field survey conducted in nine districts with the sample size of 1200 individual females. A two-stage Hechman’s sample selection model was applied to capture women’s decision to participate and the level of participation in non-farm economic activities. Summary statistics of the survey data from rural Uganda shows that: i) poverty and non-farm employment has a strong correlation, implying the importance of non-farm employment as a means for poverty reduction; and ii) there is a large gender gap to access non-farm employment, but the gender gap has been significantly reduced from group of older age to younger generation. The econometric results finds that the following factors have a significant influence on women’s participation in off-farm employment: education level of both the individual and household head (positive in both stages); women’s age (negative in both stages); female-headed household (negative in first stage); household head of polygamous marriage (negative in both stages); distance from major town (negative in the first stage); household size (positive in the second stage); dependency ratio (negative in the second stage); access to and use of government extension services (positive in the first stage); access to and use of an agricultural loan (negative in the second stage); and various district dummies variables. The implications of these findings suggest that those policies aimed at enhancing the identified determinants of women off-farm employment can promote income-generating opportunities for women groups in comparable contexts. In order to capitalize on these positive linkages, policies should be designed to improve skills and knowledge by providing education opportunities and increasing access to employment training, assistance services and loans for non-farm activities and by targeting women in female-headed, large and distant households. The government should increase investments in public infrastructure and services, such as roads, telecommunications and emergency support.

Towards the shattering of glass ceiling in the Indian banking sector: a comparative analysis among public, private and foreign banks

Glass ceiling, the metaphor, is an invisible barrier that impede the upward movement of women to high level management in the organisation. A growing economy like India with a prospective ownership of more banking assets foresees more job opportunities in the banking sector. Liberalised reforms and women-friendly environment in the banking sector not only weaken the male domination in that area but also attracted more women employees towards it. A persistent increase in percentage of women employees in the banking sector shows a positive sign of breaking of glass ceiling. The study analyses glass ceiling affects in different types of banks - public sector, private sector and foreign bank using secondary data and also analyses the character and attitude of women employees towards the glass ceiling beliefs using a questionnaire survey. A steady increase in women employment participation in the banking sector is analysed from secondary data. Attitude on glass ceiling beliefs provide a clear picture of women's view on this. This study may shed light to more women empowerment initiatives from personal, organisational and governmental aspects as it provide a clear data required. The study may act as a path finder to different concepts of career such as training, succession planning, etc.

Multiple roles and health among British and Finnish women: the influence of socioeconomic circumstances

Two contrasting hypotheses have been presented to predict women's health variations. The multiple burden hypothesis predicts that combining a paid job, being married, and having children is likely to be detrimental to women's health. The multiple attachment hypothesis predicts that multiple roles provide attachment to the community, which is likely to be beneficial to women's health. These hypotheses are examined in Britain and Finland, which have different patterns of women's employment participation. Lone mothers form a critical case, since they have fewer attachments and greater burdens, and therefore are expected to have poorer health. The socioeconomic position of lone mothers differs in Britain and Finland, but in both societies they are likely to have fewer attachments. We assess the extent to which health variations between women with different family and parental role combinations are because of the differences in their socioeconomic status and material circumstances. Comparable surveys from Britain and Finland from 1994 were used. Perceived general health and limiting long-standing illness were analysed for working age women (20–49 years) by family type and employment status, as well as other socioeconomic variables. In both countries, women living in two parent families and having children had better health than women living in other family types or on their own. Lone mothers form a disadvantaged group and showed overall worse health in both countries. Adjusting for employment status, education and household income weakened the association between family type and poor health. The findings are broadly in accordance with the multiple attachment hypothesis. Despite the more generous welfare state and high full-time employment among Finnish women, single lone mothers report poorer health than other women in Finland as well as in Britain. However, in Britain the disadvantaged social position of lone mothers accounts for a greater proportion of their poor health than in Finland.

WOMEN'S ROLES AFTER FIRST BIRTH

Literature on women's labor force participation traditionally divides women's activities into one of two categories: participants and nonparticipants. This article examines whether this dichotomization provides an adequate summary of women's employment patterns. Longitudinal data are used to examine employment sequences of American mothers for 2 to 10 years following the birth of their first child. The data indicate that beyond the first few postbirth years, a division of women's employment patterns into two groups fails to encompass the patterns of a large proportion of mothers. Further, the results indicate that there are important differences by race in the role sequences followed by women. The findings of this study emphasize that women follow substantially more diverse life paths than is often recognized in the literature and that a dynamic perspective of women's employment participation over time is needed.

Comparing inequalities in women's and men's health: Britain in the 1990s

Data on over 20,000 women and men aged 20–59 are analysed from the British General Household Survey for 1991 and 1992, showing the importance of separately analysing educational qualifications, occupational class and employment status for both women and men. Own occupational class and employment status are the key structural factors associated with limiting long-standing illness, but educational qualifications are particularly good predictors of women's self-assessed health. Class inequalities in health are less pronounced among women who are not in paid work. Women's limiting long-standing illness relates solely to their own labour market characteristics, whereas self-assessed health relates to wider aspects of women's everyday lives, including their household material conditions, and for married women, their partner's occupational class and employment status. Men's unemployment has adverse consequences for the health of their wives, which occurs through the mechanism of the family living in disadvantaged material circumstances. Women's labour market position and role in the family have undergone substantial changes since the 1970s. Approaches to measuring inequalities in women's health need to reflect changes in women's employment participation and changes in marital status and living arrangements.

Exploring Mid-Life Women's Employment

Women's labour force participation rate declines steeply in the 15 years preceding their state pensionable age, in spite of their generally lacking childcare responsibilities during this stage of the life course. Employment of women in the years following childrearing is important in enabling women to obtain a significant improvement in their pension entitlements. There has been little research on the factors influencing mid-life women's employment participation and especially on why fewer women in their fifties than in their forties are in paid work. This paper uses data from the 1988-90 General Household Survey to explore the employment participation of women in their forties and fifties. We examine the supply side factors likely to influence older married and cohabiting women's employment participation, comparing the importance of their own `human capital' (in terms of age, health, occupational class and qualifications) and the characteristics of their household (husbands' employment, class and earnings, the presence of children and tenure). For women in their forties, household circumstances had a greater effect than human capital, but in their fifties women's own attributes were the major influence on employment participation. Financial necessity was a major reason why mid-life women remained in employment. For women in their fifties, increasing age had a residual effect in reducing employment participation after all other factors considered had been controlled.

Theoretical issues of women's non-agricultural∗ employment in rural areas, with illustrations from the U.K.

The central focus of this paper is women's participation in the rural labour market. While research has recently begun to look at the labour of farm women, on both a theoretical and an empirical level, the employment of rural women outside agriculture has been almost completely neglected in the U.K. Here an attempt is made to explore broad theoretical debates surrounding the extent and nature of women's involvement in paid work and to apply these debates specifically to a rural context. Emphasis is placed on the importance of understanding women's employment participation in relation not only to the needs and characteristics of the economy, but also to the division of labour and balance of power within the domestic household. The second part of the paper analyses women's employment in rural Suffolk. This section explores the constraints operating upon women's access to paid work and relates these constraints to aspects of policy as well as to women's wider role in the family and in society. The importance of both the central and the local state in influencing women's access to, and experience in, employment is considered with particular reference to the operation of the Rural Development Programme.