Women In Full-time Employment Research Articles

Effects of workplace ageism on negative perception of aging and subjective well-being of older adults according to gender and employment status.

According to stereotype embodiment theory, workplace ageism can worsen older adults' self-perceptions of aging and subjective well-being. However, there has been little research on gender differences in this regard. This study examined the effects of workplace ageism on attitudes toward aging and subjective well-being according to gender and employment status. We carried out an online survey of 600 participants aged 60-74 years in October 2021. Participants were equally divided into women who had worked full-time, women who had worked part-time and men who had worked full-time, and further divided by current employment status, forming a total of six groups for comparison. A total of 75% of the participants perceived some form of workplace ageism. Structural equation modeling showed that, for men and women in full-time employment, workplace ageism was associated with a negative self-perception of aging and poor subjective well-being, the effect of which was strong among those currently employed and weak among those who had retired. For women working part-time, the impact of workplace ageism on subjective well-being was stronger among those who were currently unemployed. Workplace ageism exacerbates older adults' self-perception of aging and decreases their subjective well-being. Women working part-time might quit their jobs when their subjective well-being worsens due to workplace ageism. Therefore, it is necessary to create a workplace environment that is comfortable for older workers and free of ageism. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2024; 24: 259-265.

Research Note: Gender Differences in Employment During the COVID-19 Epidemic.

We investigate the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on gender disparities in three employment outcomes: labor force participation, full-time employment, and unemployment. Using data from the monthly Current Population Survey, in this research note we test individual fixed-effects models to examine the employment status of women relative to that of men in the nine months following the onset of the epidemic in March of 2020. We also test separate models to examine differences between women and men based on the presence of young children. Because the economic effects of the epidemic coincided with the summer months, when women's employment often declines, we account for seasonality in women's employment status. After doing so, we find that women's full-time employment did not decline significantly relative to that of men during the months following the beginning of the epidemic. Gender gaps in unemployment and labor force participation did increase, however, in the early and later months of the year, respectively. Our findings regarding women's labor force participation and employment have implications for our understanding of the long-term effects of the health crisis on other demographic outcomes.

Cumulative employment intensity and complexity across the life course and cognitive function in later life among European women and men

PurposeRelatively little is known about how working-age life course cumulative exposure to employment intensity and job complexity informs older-age cognitive function. We investigate these associations, separately for men and women, and net of known confounders. MethodsUsing retrospective lifetime employment histories of Europeans born 1923–1959 (2004–2009, N = 22 266), we calculate cumulative working-age exposure to nonemployment, full-time and part-time employment, and a professional occupation. In gender-stratified linear regression models, these indicators predict cognitive function score based on the DemTect scale and Mini Mental State Exam. ResultsNonemployment ≥25% of the working life course was associated with poorer cognitive function for men by −0.43 points (95% CI = −0.79, −0.06) on a 19-point scale. Women's full-time employment, even if <25% of the working lifetime, was associated with a cognitive advantage over never-employment by 0.60 points (95% CI = 0.17, 1.02). Compared to predominantly nonprofessionally employed men, those working professionally for ≥75% of the life course had better cognition by 0.38 points (95% CI = 0.16, 0.60). ConclusionsThis paper provides novel evidence that older-age cognitive functioning is associated with cumulative exposure to both employment intensity and complexity, but that these relationships vary by sex.

Religion and earnings: evidence from Germany

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to estimate the association between religious affiliation and the rate of return to human capital for German men and women. Design/methodology/approach – This paper employs data from the 1997, 2003, 2007 and 2011 waves of the German Socio-Economic Panel for German men and women in full-time employment between the age of 25 and 54. The association between religious affiliation and wages was estimated using a conventional human capital model. Findings – This paper finds that Catholic men (women) received a wage premium of 4 per cent (3 per cent) relative to their Protestant counterparts, even after controlling for an extensive range of demographic, economic and social characteristics. Originality/value – The study contributes to the literature by providing – to the best of the authors’ knowledge – the first results on the wage premium received by Catholic men and women in the German labour market.

Professional activity of Polish peri- and postmenopausal women.

IntroductionThe menopausal transition as one of the stages in women’s life can bring many ailments which complicate the accomplishment of professional duties. The situation of women on the Polish job market is determined by many barriers and stereotypes which impede women’s access to jobs and professional promotions.Material and methodsThe aim of the study was to estimate the professional status and job satisfaction of women aged 40-65. The research was carried out by a survey method, a poll technique in the period from January to March 2016. An original questionnaire consisting of 35 questions was used as a research tool.ResultsThe analysis of obtained results shows that the arithmetic mean of the age of women in full-time employment was 51.84 years whereas the arithmetic mean of the age of women in part-time or seasonal employment was 52.64. Women aged 45-60 were characterised by a significantly lower job satisfaction than women over 60 years of age. The highest percentage of women in full-time employment lived in large cities. The financial situation of working women determined their job satisfaction. Well-off respondents were more pleased with their jobs than women in a worse financial situation.ConclusionsThere is a strong need of education about counteraction of gender and age discrimination on the Polish labour market. The struggle against discrimination requires support on each level of the state administration through the implementation of numerous regulations facilitating the final period and resumption of women’s professional activity.

Labor Force Participation of Women in the EU What Role Do Family Policies Play?

We empirically study the role of different family policies in determining women’s labor market behavior in the countries of the European Union between 1997 and 2008. Women tend to assume more family duties than men and, consequently, often participate less in the labor market. At the same time, family policies are to provide support to families while also helping women to reconcile family duties with labor market participation. Their impact, however, is not clear, especially when it comes to different forms of labor market activity. We use a static and dynamic panel econometric framework examining the link between four types of family policies and labor force participation and (part-time and full-time) employment. The results suggest no stable significant impact of any on overall labor force, but higher spending on family allowance, cash benefits daycare benefits appears to promote part-time employment, whereas only spending on parental leave schemes is a significant determinant of women's full-time employment.

The Decreasing Effect of Skin Tone on Women's Full-Time Employment

The authors investigate the effect of skin tone on labor market outcomes to determine the extent to which differences in full-time employment probabilities are due to the persistence of racial and gender discrimination or other unobserved differences. Using the Coronary Artery Risk in Young Adults (CARDIA) survey for the period spanning 1985 to 2000, which includes both African American and white young adults, as well as an objective measure of skin tone from a light-spectrometer and a self-reported measure of race, they find that the effect of skin tone on employment diminished over time. These results hold across both samples as well as within the African American subsample. Further investigation indicates that all the labor market gains can be attributed to African American women, whose outcomes converged with those of their white counterparts by 2000. Similarly, within the subsample, the employment outcomes of darker-toned women converged with those of lighter-toned women. There were no changes in the employment probabilities for African American men in the 15-year panel data. The expansion of full-time employment opportunities occurred primarily in the low-skilled service occupations.

Employment patterns and changes in body weight among young women

ObjectiveTo investigate the influence of employment patterns on weight gain and weight loss in young adult women. MethodsStudy sample is 5164 participants in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health who completed surveys in 2003 and 2006. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios of weight change. ResultsThe adjusted odds of gaining weight, compared with women in stable full-time work (49.7%), were lower for women in stable part-time work (47.3%, OR=0.74, CI: 0.58–0.94), or who transitioned from not in the labour force (NILF) to part-time (42.8%, OR=0.68, CI: 0.47–0.99) or full-time (37.5%, OR=0.54, CI: 0.34–0.85) work. Heavy weight gain (>10kg) was less likely among women in stable part-time work (6.4%, OR=0.59, CI: 0.37–0.93) compared with those in stable full-time work (8.1%). The likelihood of weight loss compared with women in stable full-time employment (22.4%) was higher among stable part-time workers (28.4% OR=1.34, CI: 1.02–1.75) and those who transitioned from full-time to part-time work (24.8%, OR=1.30, CI: 1.01–1.67). DiscussionThe lower likelihood of heavy weight gain associated with fewer work hours suggests more time spent at work may contribute to weight gain. Young women in full-time employment may benefit from workplace interventions supporting healthier lifestyles.

Job Strain and Risk of Breast Cancer

Cohort studies investigating the association between stress and breast cancer have shown highly inconsistent results. The Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study included 36,332 Swedish women age 30-50 years who were employed at baseline (1991-1992). Participants were followed through December 2004 using linkages to national registries. A total of 767 women were diagnosed with breast cancer during follow-up. Among women working full-time, low job control and high job demands were weakly associated with breast cancer risk (hazard ratios of 1.2; 95% CI = 1.0-1.5). Women with both low job control and high job demands ("job strain") had higher risk of breast cancer than women with high job control and low demands ("low strain") (1.2; 0.9-1.6). Multivariate adjustment slightly strengthened the association between breast cancer and job strain (1.4; 1.1-1.9), whereas the associations with control and demands were unchanged. Work characteristics were unrelated to breast cancer risk among women working part-time. There was a small increased risk of breast cancer among women in full-time employment who experienced job strain, but not among part-time workers.

One Germany, Two Worlds of Housework? Examining Single and Partnered Women in the Decade after Unification

Despite much recent changes in gender relations, housework remains an area where women bear primary responsibility. This paper examines the role of policy and employment context on housework, not only for women who live with partners, but also for single women. I study German women's housework in the decade after unification, which allows me to simultaneously assess the impact of the ideological legacies of the FRG and the GDR, while also studying the role of different levels of labor market participation. I find that women with partners do more housework than singles, and that part-time employees do more housework than those working full-time. The results show no regional differences in singles' housework performance. However, among women with partners, West German women do significantly more housework. The analyses reveal that differences in the housework levels of full-time and part-time workers can be explained by the differences in mechanisms for the two groups. Full-time workers reduce their housework in response to their paid labor involvement to a lesser extent than part-time workers, in particular in East Germany, where women's full-time employment has long been normative.

ARE COMPUTERS AT HOME A FORM OF CONSUMPTION OR AN INVESTMENT? A LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS FOR JAPAN*

This study examines the effect on labour market outcomes, of computer possession at home using longitudinal data collected in Japan. There are positive correlations between computer possession and women's full-time employment and the salaries of both men and women. In a fixed effects analysis, however, no temporal, causal effects of computer possession on labour market outcomes were found. Overall, the results suggest that the positive correlation between computer possession and better labour market outcomes does not imply causality among workers strongly attached to the labour market.

Occupational Sitting Time and Overweight and Obesity in Australian Workers

One of the major immediate and long-term health issues in modern society is the problem of overweight and obesity. This paper examines the role of the workplace in the problem by studying the association between occupational sitting time and overweight and obesity (body mass index [BMI] > or =25) in a sample of adult Australians in full-time employment. Data on age, gender, occupation, physical activity, occupational sitting time, and BMI were collected in September 2003 from a sample of 1579 adult men and women in full-time employment at the time of the survey. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between occupational sitting time and overweight and obesity. Mean occupational sitting time was >3 hours/day, and significantly higher in men (209 minutes) than in women (189 minutes, p=0.026). Univariate analyses showed significant associations between occupational sitting time and BMI of > or =25 in men but not in women. After adjusting for age, occupation, and physical activity, the odds ratio for BMI > or =25 was 1.92 (confidence interval: 1.17-3.17) in men who reported sitting for >6 hours/day, compared with those who sat for <45 minutes/day. Occupational sitting time was independently associated with overweight and obesity in men who were in full-time paid work. These results suggest that the workplace may play an important role in the growing problem of overweight and obesity. Further research is needed to clearly understand the association between sitting time at work and overweight and obesity in women.

A survey of anonymous oocyte donors: demographics.

This is a questionnaire based study of 501 women enquiring about anonymous oocyte donation at a private in-vitro fertilization (IVF) unit, investigating the demographic characteristics and logistic issues involved in ovum donation. The 501 women were made up of 356 women who did not donate ('non-donors') and 145 women who eventually donated their oocytes ('donors'). Although there was a majority of housewives among the enquirers, women in full-time employment were the majority of actual donors. Logistic factors such as the travel and time commitment involved were major reasons for non-donation as well as concerns about complications. There was a paucity of ethnic donors. Recruitment strategies must focus on retaining potential donors and ensuring a higher proportion become actual donors. These strategies must address the logistic difficulties associated with non-donation including transport problems and social commitments by assisting with childcare provision and travel. Improving donor education and the access to more personal and non-threatening information were other areas that needed attention which were highlighted in the survey.

Gender, work roles and psychosocial work characteristics as determinants of health

This paper aims to identify gender similarities and differences in psychosocial work characteristics for those in and out of paid employment, to inform research on possible health-related effects. Specifically five questions are addressed: do women report poorer work characteristics than men; are gender differences related to specific characteristics; do work characteristics differ between full- and part-time women workers and between those in paid and unpaid work; are socio–economic gradients in work characteristics similar for men and women; and, if there are gradients, do they differ between women in paid and unpaid work? Analyses are based on the 33 year follow-up of the 1958 British birth cohort. Four psychosocial work characteristics were examined: learning opportunities, monotony, pace of work, and flexibility of breaks. Women reported more negative work characteristics than men, primarily because of differences in learning opportunities (26% lacked opportunity compared with 13% of men) and monotonous work (47 and 31% respectively). Women in full-time employment reported fewer negative characteristics (27%) than part-time (39%) or home-workers (36%). Home-workers had fewer opportunities for learning (36%) and greater monotony (49%) than paid workers (21 and 22% respectively), however fewer home-workers reported inability to control the work pace (11% compared to 23%) and inflexibility of breaks (21% compared to 47%). Socio–economic gradients in work characteristics were similar among men and women, except for flexibility of break times. A socio–economic gradient in work characteristics was found for full- and part-time workers, but not among home-workers. Differences in self reported health were also examined: a social gradient was found for all employment status groups, being strongest for home-workers despite the absence of a gradient in negative work characteristics. In conclusion, these marked gender differences in psychosocial work characteristics need to be considered in future research on work and health.

Patterns of Employment, Gender and Pensions: The Effect of Work History on Older Women's Non-State Pensions

Gender inequality of income in later life is linked to earlier employment through the major role of occupational and personal pensions. In addition to women's lower earnings, their diverse patterns of employment, in terms of the timing of periods of full-time, part-time and non-employment, may affect non-state pension income. In this paper, work history data from the 1988 OPCS Retirement and Retirement Plans Survey is used, first to identify distinct patterns of older women's lifetime employment and relate these to socio-economic and marital status. Second, we analyse the receipt and amount of occupational and personal pensions for women over state pension age according to their pattern of lifetime employment. We show that older women's likelihood of receiving non-state pension income and the amount received were closely related to their employment pattern, especially whether their employment had been mainly full time or not. However, even older women with full time and mainly continuous employment, who represent an elite minority, were disadvantaged in non-state pension income compared with men. Women's full-time employment in mid-life had a disproportionate influence in improving likelihood of pension entitlement compared with earlier employment.

Combining Employment with Childcare: An Escape From Dependence?

ABSTRACTThe availability of childcare is an important factor in enabling motherhood to be combined with paid employment. This article uses evidence from the fifth sweep of the National Child Development Study to analyse the use of childcare by a cohort of employed women who were aged 33 in 1991. There is a heavy reliance on informal care by women in partnerships and also by lone mothers. Formal care is most heavily used by women whose youngest child is under five, especially if the woman works full-time. Reported costs of childcare represent nearly a quarter of net weekly earnings for mothers with a child under five. Formal childcare is shown to play an important role in facilitating women's full-time employment. Full-time employment is the route by which women achieve financial independence from their partner. It also increases the likelihood of contributing to an occupational pension which, in turn, has implications for financial independence in later life. However, the majority of women in this cohort do not take the full-time route. For these women, low earnings potential and part-time working make paid childcare uneconomic and reinforces both their role as minor financial contributors within the family and their lack of pension provision in later life.

Midlife Women's Employment and Pension Entitlement in Relation to Coresident Adult Children in Great Britain

influence of dependent children on women's employment has been extensively researched, but there has been an implicit assumption that older children have no effect on women's employment. We argue that the presence in the home of adult children, defined here as those aged over 16, has implications for women's need and opportunity for paid employment. This in turn impacts on women's opportunity to accumulate pension entitlements and hence on their financial well-being in later life.In this article, we first examine the association between the presence of adult children living at home and British women's employment from age 40 to 59. Second, we examine the association between presence of adult children and women's enrollment in an occupational pension plan, controlling for hours of work.MIDLIFE WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENTOver the last two decades, British and American women's employment has increased substantially (Martin & Roberts, 1984; Spitze, 1988), especially for women aged under 45. This trend is generally viewed as bringing increased financial independence for women. However, almost all the increased employment for British women has been part-time, while the number of women in full-time employment has risen very little (Hakim, 1993).Only half of British women who are employed work full-time, in contrast to the United States where the majority of employed women work full-time. low rate of full-time employment among younger women with dependent children is linked to the lack of child care provision in Britain (Arber & Gilbert, 1991; Dex & Shaw, 1986; Harrop & Moss, 1993; Joshi, 1984), but the persistence of part-time work among midlife women, whose children do not require child care, needs to be explained.Women's attitudes and preferences are likely to play a part in influencing their participation in paid employment; yet their options are constrained by such factors as their family's financial need (Oppenheimer, 1977), their health, their potential earnings, the availability of employment, husbands' wishes (for married women), and the pressure of domestic work including child care (mainly among younger women) (Martin & Roberts, 1984).Part-time jobs, as well as being lower paid, tend to be lower in the occupational scale (Hakim, 1993) and less likely to offer fringe benefits such as an occupational pension plan (Ginn & Arber, 1993; Sinfield, 1986). Having a pension is important to financial well-being in later life (Arber & Ginn, 1991; Ginn & Arber, 1991), increasingly so as the value of the British state basic pension declines (Evandrou & Falkingham, 1993).CORESIDENT ADULT CHILDREN AND WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENTAn emerging literature in the U.S. has been concerned with adult childrens' coresidence with parents (Ward & Spitze, 1992), in terms of prevalence (Aquilino, 1990), intergenerational and marital relationships (Aquilino & Supple, 1991; Suitor & Pillemer, 1987, 1988; Umberson, 1992; White & Edwards, 1990), and the return of adult children to the parental home following divorce (DaVanzo & Goldscheider, 1990). There is, however, little research on how the presence of adult children in the home relates to midlife women's employment. As noted by Moen (1991, p. 135), The middle period of adulthood in women's lives has been a neglected area of study, with little known about the dynamics of women's work and their marital and parental roles in midlife.The overwhelming majority of women in Britain and the U.S. who take a career break to have children reenter the labor market well before the empty nest stage of the life course (Dex & Shaw, 1986; Elias & Main, 1982; Yeandle, 1984). In research on women's employment, the age of the youngest child (under 16) is often used to indicate women's life-course stage. However, among midlife women, there is generally no distinction made between women with a swollen nest (where adult children are still at home), an empty nest (where all children have left home), and women who have never had a child. …

Explaining Trends in Occupational Segregation: The Measurement, Causes, and Consequences of the Sexual Division of Labour

Occupational segregation is important and difficult to measure. Summary measures are used to track change in the sexual division of labour across decades, but no single index can capture all dimensions of interest, in particular vertical segregation, which explains much of the sex differential in earnings. The choice of index is not crucial; research results are determined primarily by other methodological choices in the formatting of the base data-set. Britain provides a strategic case for assessing the impact of recession and work-force restructuring in the 1980s, in analyses based on Census and Labour Force Survey data for 1979–90 for 550 occupational groups. Surprisingly, the 1980s display a larger fall in occupational segregation than previous decades. Women's labour-force participation is examined more closely; the explanation is identified as a rise in women's work commitment, and in women's full-time employment, which occurred for the first time in the l980s. On this basis, a substantial decline in occupational segregation is predicted for the 1990s, with a consequential impact on the male-female earnings gap. The growth of integrated occupations and the changing pattern of vertical segregation will provide a better basis for monitoring trends in future years than any summary index.

MATERNAL ACTIVITY AND BIRTH WEIGHT: A PROSPECTIVE, POPULATION-BASED STUDY

To determine the association between maternal activity and pregnancy outcome, the authors investigated the separate influences of time, physical effort, and posture at work, both at a job and in the home, on birth weight. Study subjects were 1,507 of 1,889 women appearing consecutively for antenatal care at a district general hospital in inner London, England, in 1982-1984. Data were collected prospectively by interview and examination at several stages of pregnancy. Multivariable linear regression was used to distinguish associations with physical activity from confounding by other factors. The mean birth weight of infants born to women in full-time employment was 49 g less than that for births to women not in paid work (95 percent confidence interval (Cl) 1-97 g). However, the difference was due to confounding, and after adjustment, full-time employment was associated with a 12-g increase in birth weight (95 percent Cl -39 to 63 g). There was little difference in birth weight related to gestational stage at leaving work. Duration, physical effort required, and energy expenditure in paid work and in work at home had no discernible association with birth weight. A small increase in birth weight was associated with increased hours of sleep. These data allow estimates of associations with birth weight as precise as 80 g. Within the range of activities performed by pregnant women in the population studied, birth weight is unlikely to be associated with maternal physical activity.

Work with visual display units in pregnancy.

Data from the Montreal survey on occupational factors in pregnancy were used to test the hypothesis that visual display units (VDUs) constitute a hazard to reproduction. Use of a VDU was recorded in 4712 current and 2164 previous pregnancies of women in full time employment at time of conception. After allowance for seven confounding variables, the risk of spontaneous abortion in current pregnancies relative to all working women was 1.19 (90% CI 1.09-1.30) and in previous pregnancies, 0.97. In an analysis by occupational title, in which 60 occupational groups were aggregated into eight categories according to use of VDUs, the relative risk for spontaneous abortion was 1.06 (90% CI 0.8-1.4) in current pregnancies and 1.01 (90% CI 0.7-1.3) in previous pregnancies. This suggests that the small excess of spontaneous abortions among individual women reporting the use of VDUs in current pregnancies may have been due to recall bias. Relative risks for stillbirth, preterm birth, and low birth weight all had 90% confidence limits which included unity. In an analysis of congenital defects the number of pregnancies was increased to include women who worked 15 or more hours a week. In all but one of nine groups of congenital defect examined confidence limits for the relative risk included unity in both current and previous pregnancies. The relative risks for the renal urinary group of defects were raised in both current (1.84, 90% CI 1.07-3.15) and previous pregnancies (1.66, 90% CI 0.82-3.25). There being no prior reason to suspect a causal link with this type of defect, interpretation remains open to question.