Wiskott-Aldrich Homology Research Articles

Metastasis suppressor 1 regulates neurite outgrowth in primary neuron cultures

Metastasis suppressor 1 (MTSS1) or missing in metastasis (MIM) is an actin- and membrane-binding protein with tumor suppressor functions. MTSS1 is important for cell morphology, motility, metastasis. The role of MTSS1 in cell morphology has been widely investigated in non-neuronal tissues; however the role of MTSS1 in neurite outgrowth remains unclear. Here we investigated the effect of MTSS1 on neurite outgrowth in primary cerebellar granule and hippocampal neurons of mouse. We found that overexpression of MTSS1 in cerebellar granule neurons significantly enhanced dendrite elaboration but inhibited axon elongation. This phenotype was significantly reduced by deletion of the Wiskott–Aldrich homology 2 (WH2) motif and point mutation in the insulin receptor substrate p53 (IRSp53) and MIM/MTSS1 homology (IMD) domain. Furthermore, inhibition of Rac1 activity or blocking of phosphatidyl inositol phosphates (PIPs) signaling decreased the effect of MTSS1 markedly. In accordance with the over-expression data, knockdown of MTSS1 in cerebellar granule neurons could increase the axon length but decrease the dendrite length and the number of dendrites. In addition, MTSS1 knock down in embryonic hippocampal neurons suppressed neurite branching and reduced dendrite length. Our findings have demonstrated that MTSS1 modulates neuronal morphology, possibly through a Rac1–PIPs signaling pathway.

Mechanism of actin filament nucleation by the bacterial effector VopL.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus protein L (VopL) is an actin nucleation factor that induces stress fibers when injected by bacteria into eukaryotic host cells. VopL contains three N-terminal Wiskott-Aldrich Homology 2 (WH2) motifs and a unique VopL C-terminal domain (VCD). We describe crystallographic and biochemical analyses of filament nucleation by VopL. The WH2 element of VopL does not nucleate on its own, and requires the VCD for activity. The VCD forms a U-shaped dimer in the crystal, which is stabilized by a terminal coiled-coil. Dimerization of the WH2 motifs contributes strongly to nucleation activity, as do contacts of the VCD to actin. Our data lead to a model where VopL stabilizes primarily lateral (short-pitch) contacts between actin monomers to create the base of a two-stranded filament. Stabilization of lateral contacts may be a common feature of actin filament nucleation by WH2-based factors.

Functional Characterization of Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Protein and Scar Homolog (WASH), a Bi-modular Nucleation-promoting Factor Able to Interact with Biogenesis of Lysosome-related Organelle Subunit 2 (BLOS2) and γ-Tubulin

The Arp2/3 complex is essential for actin filament nucleation in a variety of cellular processes. The activation of the Arp2/3 complex is mediated by nucleation-promoting factors, such as the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome family proteins, which share a WCA (WH2 domain, central region, acidic region) catalytic module at the C-terminal region, required for Arp2/3 activation, but diverge at the N-terminal region, required for binding to specific activators. Here, we report the characterization of WASH, a new member of the WAS family that has nucleation-promoting factor activity and recently has been demonstrated to play a role in endosomal sorting. We found that overexpression of the WASH-WCA domain induced disruption of the actin cytoskeleton, whereas overexpression of full-length WASH in mammalian cells did not affect stress fiber organization. Furthermore, our analysis has revealed that nerve growth factor treatment of PC12 cells overexpressing full-length WASH leads to disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. We have also found that WASH interacts through its N-terminal region with BLOS2, a centrosomal protein belonging to the BLOC-1 complex that functions as a scaffolding factor in the biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles. In addition to BLOS2, WASH also interacts with centrosomal gamma-tubulin and with pallidin, an additional component of the BLOC-1 complex. Collectively, our data propose that WASH is a bimodular protein in which the C terminus is involved in Arp2/3-mediated actin nucleation, whereas the N-terminal portion is required for its regulation and localization in the cells. Moreover, our data suggest that WASH is also a component of the BLOC-1 complex that is associated with the centrosomes.

Arp2/3-independent assembly of actin by Vibrio type III effector VopL

Microbial pathogens use a variety of mechanisms to disrupt the actin cytoskeleton during infection. Vibrio parahaemolyticus (V. para) is a Gram-negative bacterium that causes gastroenteritis, and new pandemic strains are emerging throughout the world. Analysis of the V. para genome revealed a type III secretion system effector, VopL, encoding three Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2 domains that are interspersed with three proline-rich motifs. Infection of HeLa cells with V. para induces the formation of long actin fibers in a VopL-dependent manner. Transfection of VopL promotes the assembly of actin stress fibers. In vitro, recombinant VopL potently induces assembly of actin filaments that grow at their barbed ends, independent of eukaryotic factors. Vibrio VopL is predicted to be a bacterial virulence factor that disrupts actin homeostasis during an enteric infection of the host.

Receptor tyrosine phosphatase–dependent cytoskeletal remodeling by the hedgehog-responsive gene MIM/BEG4

During development, dynamic remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton allows the precise placement and morphology of tissues. Morphogens such as Sonic hedgehog (Shh) and local cues such as receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs) mediate this process, but how they regulate the cytoskeleton is poorly understood. We previously identified Basal cell carcinoma–enriched gene 4 (BEG4)/Missing in Metastasis (MIM), a Shh-inducible, Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2 domain–containing protein that potentiates Gli transcription (Callahan, C.A., T. Ofstad, L. Horng, J.K. Wang, H.H. Zhen, P.A. Coulombe, and A.E. Oro. 2004. Genes Dev. 18:2724–2729). Here, we show that endogenous MIM is induced in a patched1-dependent manner and regulates the actin cytoskeleton. MIM functions by bundling F-actin, a process that requires self-association but is independent of G-actin binding. Cytoskeletal remodeling requires an activation domain distinct from sequences required for bundling in vitro. This domain associates with RPTPδ and, in turn, enhances RPTPδ membrane localization. MIM-dependent cytoskeletal changes can be inhibited using a soluble RPTPδ-D2 domain. Our data suggest that the hedgehog-responsive gene MIM cooperates with RPTP to induce cytoskeletal changes.

Overlapping expression pattern of the actin organizers Spir-1 and formin-2 in the developing mouse nervous system and the adult brain

The Wiskott–Aldrich homology domain 2 (WH2) family protein Spir and the formin Cappuccino belong to two distinct classes of actin organizers. Despite their functional classification as actin organizers, a major defect of Drosophila spire and cappuccino mutant oocytes is a failure in the orientation of microtubule plus ends towards the posterior pole. Mammalian homologues of spire are the spir-1 and spir-2 genes. The mouse and human formin-1 and formin-2 genes have high similarity to the cappuccino gene. The mouse formin-2 gene has been found to be expressed in the developing nervous system and in neuronal cells of the adult brain. By analyzing the expression of the spir-1 gene we show that spir-1 and formin-2 have a nearly identical expression pattern during mouse embryogenesis and in the adult brain. In mouse embryos both genes are expressed in the developing nervous system. In the adult brain high expression of the genes was found in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum and in neuronal cells of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus.

The Spir actin organizers are involved in vesicle transport processes

The p150-Spir protein, which was discovered as a phosphorylation target of the Jun N-terminal kinase, is an essential regulator of the polarization of the Drosophila oocyte [1, 2]. Spir proteins are highly conserved between species and belong to the family of Wiskott-Aldrich homology region 2 (WH2) proteins involved in actin organization. The C-terminal region of Spir encodes a zinc finger structure highly homologous to FYVE motifs [2]. A region with high homology between the Spir family proteins is located adjacent (N-terminal) to the modified FYVE domain and is designated as “Spir-box.” The Spir-box has sequence similarity to a region of rabphilin-3A, which mediates interaction with the small GTPase Rab3A [3]. Coexpression of p150-Spir and green fluorescent protein-tagged Rab GTPases in NIH 3T3 cells revealed that the Spir protein colocalized specifically with the Rab11 GTPase, which is localized at the trans-Golgi network (TGN), post-Golgi vesicles, and the recycling endosome [4]. The distinct Spir localization pattern was dependent on the integrity of the modified FYVE finger motif and the Spir-box. Overexpression of a mouse Spir-1 dominant interfering mutant strongly inhibited the transport of the vesicular stomatitis virus G (VSV G) protein to the plasma membrane. The viral protein was arrested in membrane structures, largely colocalizing with the TGN marker TGN46. Our findings that the Spir actin organizer is targeted to intracellular membrane structures by its modified FYVE zinc finger and is involved in vesicle transport processes provide a novel link between actin organization and intracellular transport.