Female Wing Research Articles

Can microplastic contamination affect the wing morphology and wingbeat frequency of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes?

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly widespread in the environment, which raises questions about their potential effects at different biological levels. It is essential to assess the impacts on biodiversity, and it is also crucial to understand whether the presence of MPs can interfere with the biological traits of species of relevance in public health. Considering that the life-history traits of mosquitoes, such as size and the wingbeat frequency (WBF), are related to its vector competence, here, we study the effects of 106 particles L-1 (as expected concentration of MPs on the environment, using the polyethylene type) on WBF, as well as wing morphology, testing the Culicidae species found across all continents, Aedes aegypti, as an indicator. Results show that larvae survival and development were not affected by the tested concentration of MP. Geometric morphometrics showed some asymmetry in female mosquito wings, which were also smaller for individuals reared in MP suspension. As for WBF, results did not indicate any significant differences between females. Male mosquitoes, however, showed alterations in WBF and wing morphology, suggesting possible sex-specific reactions to microplastic exposure. Also, the combination of morphological parameters analyzed as covariates (wing centroid size and body weight) did not significantly affect WBF for both female and male mosquitoes. Overall, this study shows an inaugural investigation of the effects of MP on wing size and WBF on Ae. aegypti, shedding light on these parameters tested for a current pollution issue and its impact on a virus vector.

MACSFeD-a database of mosquito acoustic communication and swarming features.

Acoustic communication plays an important role during the courtship of many mosquito species. Male mosquitoes show strong attraction to female wing beat frequencies, mediated via spectral matching between female wing beat frequency and male ear mechanical tuning frequency. Such acoustic communication typically occurs within swarms, male-dominated aggregations with species-specific properties. Despite hundreds of relevant publications being available, the lack of a central platform hosting all associated data hinders research efforts and limits cross-species comparisons. Here, we introduce MACSFeD (Mosquito Acoustic Communication and Swarming Features Database), an interactive platform for the exploration of our comprehensive database containing 251 unique reports focusing on different aspects of mosquito acoustic communication, including hearing function, wing beat frequency and phonotaxis, as well as male swarming parameters. MACSFeD serves as an easily accessible, efficient, and robust data visualization tool for mosquito acoustic communication research. We envision that further in-depth studies could arise following the use of this new platform. Database URL: https://minmatt.shinyapps.io/MACSFeD/.

Sexual dimorphism in the structural colours of the wings of the black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)

The black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) plays a significant role at the larval stage in the circular economy due to its ability to convert organic waste into valuable products for energy, food, feed, and agricultural applications. Many data are available on larval development and biomass generation, but basic research on this species is lacking and little is known about adult biology, in particular about the cues involved in sexual recognition. In the present study, using various instruments (stereomicroscope, scanning and transmission electron microscope, hyperspectral camera and spectrophotometer), wing ultrastructure of both sexes was analysed, reflectance and transmission spectra of the wings were measured and behavioural bioassays were carried out to measure male response to specific visual stimuli. The collected data showed the existence of sexual dimorphism in the wings of H. illucens due to iridescent structural colouration generated by a multilayer of melanin located in the dorsal lamina of the central part of the wing. Wing sexual dimorphism is particularly evident regarding the strong emission of blue light of female wings. Blue colour induces in males a strong motivation to mate. The obtained results can help to improve and optimize the breeding techniques of BSF.

Sex dimorphism in pupae and adults of the specialist Ipomoea batatas defoliator Bedellia somnulentella (Lepidoptera: Bedelliidae).

Bedellia somnulentella Zeller, 1847 (Lepidoptera: Bedelliidae), a global pest of the sweet potato Ipomoea batatas, was recorded in Brazil, but morphological information on the sexual dimorphism of this insect is scarce. The objective was to evaluate morphological characters of sexual dimorphism of B. somnulentella pupae and adults. External structures with sexual dimorphism were not detected in the last abdominal segments of B. somnulentella pupae. The females of this insect are heavier, which could be a distinctive sex characteristic. A pair of frenulum on the hind wings of females and only one on those of males, in addition to elongated cerci and bipartite genitalia in the latter and smaller cerci involving the last abdominal segment and an ovipositor in females, differentiate sexes of B. somnulentella.

Semi-field evaluation of aquatic predators for the control of Anopheles funestus in rural south-eastern Tanzania

BackgroundBiological control is a promising alternative or complementary approach for controlling vector populations in response to the spread of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors. This study evaluated the efficacy of three selected potential predators on the density and fitness parameters of Anopheles funestus larvae in rural Tanzania.MethodsCommon predator families Aeshnidae (dragonflies), Coenagrionidae (damselflies), and Notonectidae (backswimmers) and An. funestus group larvae were collected from natural aquatic habitats in rural south-eastern Tanzania. Predators were starved for 12-h while An. funestus larvae were given fish food before starting the experiment. Anopheles funestus larvae were placed into artificial habitats containing predators, exposing them to potential predation. The number of surviving An. funestus larvae were counted every 24-h. An emergence traps were placed at the top of artificial habitats to capture emerging mosquitoes. Emerged mosquitoes were monitored until they died. Female wings were measured and used as a proxy for body size. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) with binomial variates at 95% CI and Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess the proportion of dead mosquitoes and the daily survival determined.ResultsThere were significant differences in the number of emerged mosquitoes between the treatment and control groups (P < 0.001). Thus, all predator species played a significant role in reducing the density of An. funestus mosquitoes (P < 0.001). Furthermore, these predators had notable effects on the fitness parameters and survival of emerged mosquitoes (P < 0.001). Among the three predators studied, Coenagrionidae (damselflies) were most efficient followed by Notonectidae (backswimmers), with Aeshnidae (dragonflies) being the least efficient.ConclusionSelected aquatic predators have the potential to reduce the survival and density of An. funestus larvae. They might eventually be included within an integrated malaria vector control strategy, ultimately leading to a reduction in malaria transmission.

Changes in the wing shape and size in fruit flies exposed to micro and nanoplastics

Geometric morphometrics analysis (GMA) is a well-known technique to identify minute changes in Drosophila wings. This study aimed to determine potential changes in Drosophila wings shape and size after exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (NPs) (50 nm) and microplastics (MPs) (1 μm). Flies were exposed from eggs to pupal eclosion and analyzed using GMA. Results revealed a difference in shape and size between male and female wings, as expected, due to sexual dimorphism. Therefore, wings were analyzed by sex. Wings of MPs and NPs treated females were elongated compared to controls and had a constriction of the wing joint. Additionally, MPs treated female flies had the most dissimilar shape compared to controls. In male flies, NPs flies had smaller wings compared to MPs and control flies. Compared to control, NPs wings of males were shrunken at the joint and in the entire proximal region of the wing. However, male MPs wings had a narrower anal region and were slightly elongated. These results reveal that wing shape and size can change in a different way based on the sex of the flies and size of plastic particles that larvae interacted with. All the changes in the wings occurred only within the normally allowed wing variation and treatment with NPs/MPs did not cause development of the aberrant phenotypes. Results can pave the way for further understanding of how MPs and NPs can alter phenotypes of flies.

Influence of host plant on the wing shape of Bactrocera cucurbitae and Bactrocera tau (Diptera: Tephritidae)

ABSTRACT Bactrocera fruit flies are a significant pest of fruits and vegetables. Some of them are polyphagous and show rapid reproduction. Our study evaluated the impact of three host plants: bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula), and cucumber (Cucumis sativus) on the shape and size of the wings of Bactrocera cucurbitae and B. tau by using geometric morphometrics. The wings of females were significantly larger than those of males, and the wings of B. cucurbitae were significantly smaller than those of B. tau. Individuals feeding on different host plants did not differ significantly in wing size. Wing shape differed significantly both between sexes and between species. Differences in wing shape between males and females were larger than differences between B. cucurbitae and B. tau. Wing shape can be used to identify males and females of the two species without errors. Wing shape differed significantly between males of the two species feeding on cucumber and bottle gourd. Wing shape can be used to identify males of B. cucurbitae and B. tau feeding on those two host plants without errors.

A geometric morphometric analysis of wing variations in shape and size of the blue bottle fly, Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

A geometric morphometric analysis was performed on the right wing of adult Calliphora vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy) collected across 4 altitudinal levels in Sicily. The objective of this study was to assess differences in shape and centroid size (CS) between females and males and across elevations. The wings analyzed in this study were removed from adults of C. vicina collected with baited traps at 20, 700, 1,153, and 1,552; for this study, 19 landmarks were identified in each wing. The coordinates of the landmarks were aligned and superimposed to prevent variations due to position, orientation, and scale; they were then scaled to the same CS and recentered. CS and Procrustes differences were, respectively, used to assess variations in size and shape. Significant differences were observed in wing shape between males and females but not between all altitudinal levels. Female wings were found to be significantly larger than males (P < 0.01). Wings of flies collected at the highest altitudinal level resulted in significantly larger wings than those collected at lower altitudes (P < 0.001), with CS values ranging from 12.1 to 14.1. Variation in wing shape can impact thermal regulation, and therefore, oxygen content, temperature, atmospheric pressure, and solar radiation can have an effect on an insect's body and activity levels. At high elevations and lower temperatures, larger wings could mean less energy expenditure when flying to increase body temperature.

One New Genus and Four New Species of Beaded Lacewings (Neuroptera: Berothidae) from Upper Cretaceous Myanmar Amber.

In recent years, as more and more fossil species of berothids from Myanmar have been reported, the species and morphological diversity of Berothidae continues to increase. Herein, one new species of Berothidae, Aggregataberotha paucipunctata sp. nov., and one new genus, Sejunctaberotha gen. nov., with three new species (Sejunctaberotha sphaerica gen. et sp. nov., Sejunctaberotha tenuis gen. et sp. nov. and Sejunctaberotha transversa gen. et sp. nov.) are described from mid-Cretaceous Myanmar amber. A. paucipunctata sp. nov. is assigned to Aggregataberotha Wang, Huang & Wang, 2022, based on the characteristics of the similar female terminalia and wing venation, but can be different from A. punctate regarding the pale pterostigma and a few detailed features of wing venation. Additionally, representatives of Sejunctaberotha gen. nov. are remarkably different from the representatives of the other genera within Berothidae in the configuration of wing venation. For example, Sejunctaberotha gen. nov. has simple subcostal veinlets, obviously free Sc and RA at the apex present both in fore- and hindwings, a single ra-rp crossvein connecting the RA with RP3, a single rp-m crossvein locating before the origin of the MP, a simple CuP and no gradate veins. Interestingly, in one of the specimens of Sejunctaberotha gen. nov., a pair of spherical bulges was found at the end of the antennae. The new genus Sejunctaberotha gen. nov. suggests that Berothidae had a higher potential diversification during the Mesozoic Era.

Polythore vexilla sp. nov. from southwestern Ecuador (Odonata: Polythoridae)

Polythore vexilla sp. nov. (holotype ♂, allotype ♀: ECUADOR, Azuay Province, small tributary of Río Pijilí, about 4.1 km SE of Victoria, -2.940°, -79.5625°; approximate elev. 730 m, 11-IV-2008, K. J. Tennessen leg., deposited in Florida State Collection of Arthropods) belongs in the Andean clade of Polythore Calvert. Based on genital ligula morphology it appears to be most closely related to P. gigantea (Selys). The male is distinct from all congeners by the narrow, medial black band in all four wings; the central band in the female wings is similar to the male.

New genera and species of Mantispoidea (Insecta, Neuroptera) from the mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber, Myanmar

Mantispoidea (Insecta, Neuroptera) are well-known for the hypermetamorphic larval development and for most adults having praying mantis-like raptorial forelegs. Currently, this superfamily comprises Berothidae (beaded lacewings) and three raptorial mantispoid families: Rhachiberothidae (thorny lacewings), Dipteromantispidae and Mantispidae (mantidflies or mantid lacewings). It includes about 530 extant species in 74 genera, and 143 extinct species in 97 genera from the Upper Triassic to the Miocene. Berothidae, well-known for some adults with scale-like setae on the female wings, currently includes 119 extant species in 26 genera, and 59 extinct species in 37 genera from the Upper Triassic to the Eocene. Rhachiberothidae represents the relictual group of Mantispoidea, comprising only 14 extant species across four genera, which are confined to the Afrotropical Region. However, the abundant fossil records (28 species and 21 genera), especially from the Cretaceous, highlight the past glory of this family. The Cretaceous dipteran-like family Dipteromantispidae, comprising ten species across nine genera, remains enigmatic in terms of its phylogenetic status. Mantispidae, the largest family within Mantispoidea, comprises approximately 395 extant species across 44 genera and 46 extinct species in 30 genera, ranging from the Lower Jurassic to the Miocene. This family is distinctive from other raptorial families for its highly mobile and variously elongated prothorax. Here, we describe several new genera and species from mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber, Myanmar: Three new species of Osmyloberotha Khramov, 2021 (O. dispersa sp. nov., O. chenzuyini Zhuo, Li &amp; Liu sp. nov. and O. magnimaculata sp. nov.) in Berothidae, with a detailed redescription of O. simpla Khramov, 2021; two new genera and three new species (Paraberothinae: Paraberothoides longispina Li, Zhang &amp; Liu gen. et sp. nov.; Subfamily unknown: Dicranoberotha zhangzhiqiae Zhuo, Li &amp; Liu gen. et sp. nov., Dicranoberotha liumohanae Zhuo, Li &amp; Liu gen. et sp. nov.) of Rhachiberothidae, three new species (Enigmadipteromantispa dilatata Li, Nakamine, Yamamoto &amp; Liu sp. nov., Kurtodipteromantispa relicta Li, Nakamine, Yamamoto &amp; Liu sp. nov. and Kurtodipteromantispa univenula sp. nov.) of Dipteromantispidae, as well as four new genera and five new species (Symphrasinae: Parvosymphrasites aploneura Li, Lin, Liu &amp; Wang gen. et sp. nov. and Proplega evelynae Zhuo, Li &amp; Liu gen. et sp. nov.; Subfamily unknown: Haplacantha robusta gen. et sp. nov., Haplacantha tenuis gen. et sp. nov. and Mesomantispoides felixoporcus gen. et sp. nov.) of Mantispidae. Sinuijumantispa So &amp; Won, 2022, previously classified within Drepanicinae, is now recognized as a stem group of Mantispidae, which is possibly related to Mesomantispoides gen. nov. or Mesomantispinae. Our new findings offer crucial insights into the taxonomy, morphological diversity and evolution of Mantispoidea.

Geometric Morphometric Study of Wing Shape in Leva indica (Acrididae: Gomphocerinae) from Different Environmental Sites of Coimbatore, India

A landmark based geometric morphometric study was carried out to describe the variation in wing of male and female Leva indica from different environmental sites of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. A total of 60 male and 60 female forewings were used in this study. To demonstrate the variation in wing shape, landmark data of each individual was examined through the morphometric softwares namely tps-Util, tps-Dig, tps-Relw, tps-Small and integrated software PAST. In total, 19 landmarks were identified in both male and female wings of L. indica. Based on the landmark coordinates, the first two relative warp analysis showed significant variation within and between the male and female wing shape from different sites. Procrustes vs. tangent space distance showed that the distances were similar within males and females but significant differences appeared between the male and female wings of L. indica. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) between the male and female wings scatter plots also showed clear distinction from the result. The obtained results indicate that each sex of L. indica from different regions displays morphological differences in wing shape. These morphological changes could have occurred as a result of phenotypic plasticity.

Comparative Analyses of Reproductive Caste Types Reveal Vitellogenin Genes Involved in Queen Fertility in Solenopsis invicta.

The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) is a social pest species with a robust reproductive ability that causes extensive damage. Identification of the genes involved in queen fertility is critical in order to better understand the reproductive biology and screening for the potential molecular targets in S. invicta. Here, we used the mRNA deep sequencing (RNA-seq) approach to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the transcriptomes of three reproductive caste types of S. invicta, including queen (QA) and winged female (FA) and male (MA) ants. The genes that were specific to and highly expressed in the queens were then screened, and the Vg2 and Vg3 genes were chosen as targets to explore their functions in oogenesis and fertility. A minimum of 6.08 giga bases (Gb) of clean reads was obtained from all samples, with a mapping rate > 89.78%. There were 7524, 7133, and 977 DEGs identified in the MA vs. QA, MA vs. FA, and FA vs. QA comparisons, respectively. qRT-PCR was used to validate 10 randomly selected DEGs, including vitellogenin 2 (Vg2) and 3 (Vg3), and their expression patterns were mostly consistent with the RNA-seq data. The S. invicta Vgs included conserved domains and motifs that are commonly found in most insect Vgs. SiVg2 and SiVg3 were highly expressed in queens and winged females and were most highly expressed in the thorax, followed by the fat body, head, and epidermis. Evaluation based on a loss-of-function-based knockdown analysis showed that the downregulation of either or both of these genes resulted in smaller ovaries, less oogenesis, and less egg production. The results of transcriptional sequencing provide a foundation for clarifying the regulators of queen fertility in S. invicta. The functions of SiVg2 and SiVg3 as regulators of oogenesis highlight their importance in queen fecundity and their potential as targets of reproductive disruption in S. invicta control.

Taxonomic status of the Central Asian damselfly Calopteryx samarcandica Bartenev, 1912 (Odonata: Calopterygidae)

The taxonomic status of the Central Asian damselfly Calopteryx samarcandica was determined on the basis of molecular and phenotypic data from the Kugitang Mountains, SE Uzbekistan. Molecular analyses (COI and 18S rDNA, ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2) revealed that C. samarcandica forms part of a clade that includes taxa treated in the literature as subspecies of Calopteryx splendens and/or related species. However, both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA confirmed that C. samarcandica deserves separate species status. The COI distance to C. splendens (including C. xanthostoma) is moderate (3.47%, K2P), but much greater than the internal distances between the sequences qualified in C. splendens (0.4%); this difference is supported by the low values of the barcoding gap in this genus. The rather distant separation of C. samarcandica from both C. splendens (ancilla, taurica, intermedia) and C. orientalis and the length of the samarcandica-branch recognisable in nuclear rDNA strengthen the independent position of the first species. The phylogenetic position of C. samarcandica in the genus Calopteryx remains unclear due to the low variability of nuclear rDNA markers and insufficient and partly incomparable data for other taxa. The molecular data support the phenotypic and ecological specificity of C. samarcandi­ca, defined by a diagnostic combination of its traits (male and female wing colours and large size and basal diffusion of the wing spot in males) and the conservative association with groundwater-fed natural watercourses in the mountains and foothills fringing the vast Central Asian mountain block.

Molecular Characterization of Three Chemosensory Proteins from Carposina sasakii

The peach fruit moth, Carposina sasakii, is part of the Carposinidae, and is harmful to the families Rosaceae and Rhamnaceae. C. sasakii lays eggs on the hairy surface of the fruit’s stalk cavity and calyx end. After hatching, the moth can bore into the fruits and feed on the flesh inside. Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are a class of low-molecular-weight soluble carrier proteins that are highly evolutionarily conserved. To enhance our understanding of the recognition of host plant volatiles by CSPs of C. sasakii, the expression patterns and binding characteristics of CsasCSP7, CsasCSP9 and CsasCSP11 in C. sasakii were investigated. In our study, the results of real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays demonstrate that CsasCSP7 and CsasCSP9 transcripts were abundantly expressed in the antennae of males, and CsasCSP11 was highly expressed in the wings of females. Fluorescence competitive binding assays with 38 candidate ligands showed that CsasCSP7 could bind to benzaldehyde and dodecanal, whereas CsasCSP9 bound to butyl octanoate, decanal and (-)-beta-pinene. CsasCSP11 could also bind to1-hexanol, beta-ocimene and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one. Our results suggest that CsasCSP7, CsasCSP9 and CsasCSP11 may play a crucial role in locating the host plant of C. sasakii.

Wing Shape Variation between Terrestrial and Coastal Populations of the Invasive Box Tree Moth, Cydalima perspectalis, in Croatia.

The box tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis Walker, 1859; Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is an invasive species naturally distributed in Asia. The caterpillars in all developmental stages cause damage through defoliation of plants, and ultimately the death of the plant itself may occur. It is possible to recognize this species by its silk barriers and threads, and in the case of an intense attack, the entire plant will be covered with them. In Europe, this species' presence was first recorded in 2007 in Germany and the Netherlands, and it is now widely distributed. In Croatia, its existence was first recorded in 2012, in Istria, while substantial damages were recorded in 2013. This work aimed to determine the morphological variability of C. perspectalis from Croatia and assess its invasive character, the possibility of flight, and the risk of further spread. The methods of geometric morphometrics were used as the analysis of wing shape. A total of 269 moths from different locations in Croatia were collected, the upper wings of males and females were analyzed using 14 landmarks. Significant differences in wing shapes between terrestrial and coastal populations were found, as well as subtle wing shape sexual dimorphism. The implications of this variability in species invasiveness and capacity of spread are discussed in this paper. We also extrapolate the usefulness of our results and suggest strategies for predicting and managing invasive species.

Different demographic responses of three species of container Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae to timing of extrinsic mortality.

Mortality imposed on a population can interact with negatively density-dependent mortality to produce overcompensation, wherein added mortality results in more survivors. Experimental mortality can cause overcompensation in mosquito larvae, which would be counterproductive if it resulted from mosquito control in nature. We tested for different demographic responses to mortality among 3 container Aedes species when impacted by density dependence. We imposed 48.2% mortality on cohorts of larvae 2, 6, or 8 days after hatching and compared adult production, development times, and female size to those variables for controls without mortality. Mortality significantly increased adult production compared to controls, but the 3 species varied in the details of that response. Aedes albopictus (Skuse) produced more adults with mortality on day 2 primarily because of greater production of males. Aedes triseriatus (Say) yielded more adults with mortality on day 2 primarily because of greater production of females. Aedes aegypti (L.) adult production was not significantly affected by mortality, but development times for both sexes were significantly shorter with mortality on day 8. There were no effects of mortality on female wing length. None of our mortality treatments yielded significant reductions of adults for any species. These species responses to mortality are not the same, despite their similar ecologies and life histories. Thus, we cannot assume that killing almost half the larvae present in a dense population will reduce adult production, nor can we assume that different Aedes species will respond to mortality in the same way.

Assessment of wing geometric morphometrics of urban Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) populations

Culex quinquefasciatus is a cosmopolitan species distributed throughout tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The species is of great epidemiological importance as it is responsible for vectoring the causative agent of lymphatic filariasis and several arboviruses, including West Nile virus. Wing geometric morphometrics has been widely used to assess phenotypic variations in mosquito species. Here, we hypothesize that Cx. quinquefasciatus populations in urban parks in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, have been subjected to anthropogenic selective pressures that are responsible for driving their ecology and behavior. Mosquitoes were collected by CDC traps in five municipal parks in the city of São Paulo. Eighteen anatomical landmark coordinates on each female right wing were digitized. Canonical variate analysis, wireframe graphs, cross-validated reclassification tests and the neighbor-joining method were used to assess phenotypical dissimilarity in wing shape between populations. Centroid size was calculated to assess differences in wing size between populations, which can result from different environmental conditions during immature mosquito development. Moderately heterogeneous wing shape and wing size patterns were found in the populations analyzed, indicating that selective pressures in the urban environment are affecting the wing patterns of Cx. quinquefasciatus populations in the city of São Paulo, Brazil.

Effects of Temperature and Nutrition during the Larval Period on Life History Traits in an Invasive Malaria Vector Anopheles stephensi.

Anopheles stephensi is an Asian and Middle Eastern malaria vector, and it has recently spread to the African continent. It is needed to measure how the malaria parasite infection in A. stephensi is influenced by environmental factors to predict its expansion in a new environment. Effects of temperature and food conditions during larval periods on larval mortality, larval period, female wing size, egg production, egg size, adult longevity, and malaria infection rate were studied using a laboratory strain. Larval survival and female wing size were generally reduced when reared at higher temperatures and with a low food supply during the larval period. Egg production was not significantly affected by temperature during the larval period. Egg size was generally smaller in females reared at higher temperatures during the larval period. The infection rate of mosquitoes that fed on blood from malaria-infected mice was not affected by rearing temperature or food conditions during the larval period. Higher temperatures may reduce infection. A. stephensi; however, larger individuals can still be infective. We suggest that routinely recording the body size of adults in field surveys is effective in finding productive larval breeding sites and in predicting malaria risk.

Genetic variation in chromatin state across multiple tissues in Drosophila melanogaster.

We use ATAC-seq to examine chromatin accessibility for four different tissues in Drosophila melanogaster: adult female brain, ovaries, and both wing and eye-antennal imaginal discs from males. Each tissue is assayed in eight different inbred strain genetic backgrounds, seven associated with a reference quality genome assembly. We develop a method for the quantile normalization of ATAC-seq fragments and test for differences in coverage among genotypes, tissues, and their interaction at 44099 peaks throughout the euchromatic genome. For the strains with reference quality genome assemblies, we correct ATAC-seq profiles for read mis-mapping due to nearby polymorphic structural variants (SVs). Comparing coverage among genotypes without accounting for SVs results in a highly elevated rate (55%) of identifying false positive differences in chromatin state between genotypes. After SV correction, we identify 1050, 30383, and 4508 regions whose peak heights are polymorphic among genotypes, among tissues, or exhibit genotype-by-tissue interactions, respectively. Finally, we identify 3988 candidate causative variants that explain at least 80% of the variance in chromatin state at nearby ATAC-seq peaks.