Wine-making Technique Research Articles

Ohmic-based carbonic maseration of Arabica coffee cherries: A Review

Coffee stands as one of the most globally significant and beloved commercial crops. Green coffee beans are typically produced from coffee cherries through one of three distinct processing techniques: wet, dry, or semi-dry process. During the wet and dry process, fermentation plays a pivotal role in the formation of distinct and desirable sensory attributes. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the intricate fermentation process, shedding light on its multifaceted impacts on flavor. Additionally, we introduce a novel approach to coffee processing, the ohmic-assisted carbonic maceration, drawing inspiration from the well-established winemaking technique. This innovative method explores the potential for using ohmic heating in carbonic maceration of coffee cherries to produce high-quality coffee beans with distinct flavor profiles; with a specific focus on crafting specialty coffee. This cutting-edge approach holds immense promise for modernizing the traditional methods that are commonly employed by coffee farmers and producers in Indonesia.

“Orange” Wine—The Resurgence of an Ancient Winemaking Technique: A Review

Over the past few decades, there has been a notable paradigm shift worldwide, affecting people’s preferences and decisions regarding both food and beverage options. These factors have sparked a newfound fascination among winemakers, wine enthusiasts, and consumers alike, as they explore the notion of reconnecting with a bygone era and embracing a lifestyle reminiscent of the past. “Orange” wine, a product derived from white grapes, encapsulates the intriguing allure of ancient winemaking methods that trace their roots back to Georgia. The method enables an elevated presence of phenolic compounds, which can have a favorable influence on the sensory characteristics of the wines or their behavior during oxidative processes. Given the scarcity of widespread knowledge, this overview aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the historical evolution of winemaking and its various transformations over the years. It delves into the intricacies of winemaking technology, particularly focusing on the unique utilization of qvevri vessels. In addition to traditional sources, this review examines the influence of winemaking technology and the utilization of special vessels on the characteristics of “orange” wines. It explores the unique traits that develop in these wines as a result of prolonged maceration. By considering the impact of these factors, the review offers insights into the distinct qualities and attributes that emerge in “orange” wines during the winemaking process.

Seasonal differences in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot noir fruit and wine quality in relation to climate

Aims: A better understanding of the relationship between weather conditions and wine quality would provide tools for assessing the impact of climate change and the potential for adaptation. Most studies rely on assessing wine quality by the price per bottle or by an overall ranking and then establishing general relations to weather conditions. However, such an approach may imply the addition of bias by variable winemaking techniques overcoming vintage effects. The aim of our study was therefore to implement a controlled conditions approach using grape samples from a single vineyard and a standardized micro-scale winemaking technique to produce wines in similar conditions for each vintage over more than a decade. We hope that this data will allow new insights into responses to climatic differences.Methods and results: From 2005 to 2015, data was collected from a vineyard of Hochschule Geisenheim University planted with Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot Noir grafted on rootstock SO4 in four field replicates. Weather conditions were recorded together with the major phenological stages, yield, infection of the bunches by Botrytis cinerea bunch rot, and pruning weight. Key primary juice compounds were analyzed and berry phenolics in skins and seeds were determined before harvest. Micro-scale winemaking was developed to produce wines in standardized conditions. The repeatability of the method to assess the extraction of anthocyanins and tannins was shown to be 2–10% and 8–12%, respectively, depending on grape maturity stage. Sugar accumulation was coupled to warmer conditions during the maturation period, and high temperatures after véraison decreased the concentration of malic acid in the juice. The accumulation of primary amino acids (N-OPA) in the juices seemed positively related to warmer conditions between bud break and flowering. Increased temperature, especially before véraison, accompanied by a lack of precipitation was related to an accumulation of tannins in fruit and wine, with a higher accumulation in skins than seeds. The temperature-sensitive anthocyanin accumulation in grapes was coupled to warmer conditions after véraison. These differences in anthocyanin concentration could also be observed in the wine.Conclusions: High-quality vintages were linked to warmer than normal growing seasons and below normal precipitation.Significance and impact of the study: The use of a micro-scale winemaking technique represents an innovative tool to provide detailed information in a controlled and reproducible way. A better understanding of the interaction between weather conditions and berry/wine compounds will help with developing improved winemaking techniques and better adapting to future impacts of climate change.

Effect of maceration time on free and bound volatiles of red wines from cv. Karaoğlan (Vitis vinifera L.) grapes grown in Arapgir, Turkey.

Skin maceration is an essential winemaking technique that affects sensory properties and aroma of red wines. The aim of this study was to investigate aroma profiles of red wines made from cv. Karaoğlan, a grape variety grown in Arapgir (Malatya, Turkey) and the effect of maceration time (5, 10, and 15 d) on free and bound aroma compounds and sensory properties. Three maceration times were applied in durations of 5, 10, and 15 d. Free and glycosidically bound aroma compounds were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in Karaoğlan wines, and the effect of different maceration times on aroma composition were evaluated. Results indicate that extended maceration time significantly influenced the aroma composition of wines both qualitatively and quantitatively. A total of 59 free and 22 bound aroma compounds were identified in the final wines. The maximum of free aroma content was achieved with 5 d of maceration, while 15 d of maceration gave the highest amount of glycosidically bound aroma compounds. From sensorial point of view, the wine produced with 10 d of maceration had the best panel score compared to wines with 5 and 15 d of maceration. This is the first study referring to the composition of aroma compounds of red wines made from cv. Karaoğlan. It was concluded that this cultivar resulted in a good quality wine in terms of bound and free aroma compounds. This information of vinification practices that influence the chemical properties of wine is useful for grape growers and winemakers.

Effect of cold pre-fermentative maceration on the color and composition of young red wines cv. Tannat.

Cold Pre-fermentative Maceration (CPM) is an interesting winemaking technique to enhance the extraction of pigments, aroma and flavour compounds from grape skins to wine. This work aimed to evaluate the effect of Cold Pre-fermentative Maceration (CPM) on the composition of Tannat red wines produced in Uruguay in several vintages. For this purpose, wines elaborated by CPM were compared with control wines produced by Traditional Maceration (TM) in 4years. Control wines (TM) were made with classical fermentation on skins. The CPM was carried out with additions of dry ice for 5days to keep the must at 10 ºC. Wines were analysed at devatting. The impact of CPM on composition and color of wines was different in each year. Color intensity was significantly higher in CPM than control wines in 2007 and 2009 whereas the anthocyanins levels were higher in control wines every year. However, CPM wines had the highest polyphenols contents in 2007, 2009 and 2010 principally due to their catechins and proanthocyanidins contents. Anthocyanin profile was similar in the wines of each vintage, according to the varietal fingerprint. The highest contents of higher alcohols were verified in CPM wines. The Cold Pre-fermentative Maceration could have an important effect on the characteristics of Tannat red wines, although it depends strongly on the composition of the grapes of origin.

An inertizing and cooling process for grapes cryomaceration

Background: With this research an inertizing and cooling process for grapes cryomaceration has been set up. The process in question has been performed by an innovative plant that cooled the grapes rapidly in about 8 sec until they reached the set cryo-maceration temperature, using direct injection of liquid CO 2 . It works with a grape flow of approximately 2-3 tons/h, with a maximum thermal gradient of 20 K between the grape inlet and outlet temperature. For this plant a vibrating device was set up that allowed that only one grape cluster layer to be formed on the ribbon conveyor after the grapes had been put into the feedbox. A numerical model was set up for the cooling tunnel, and numerical simulations were performed to investigate the operative parameters of the machine in question. The numerical results were validated by means of experimental tests. Results: The wines obtained by using the considered plant (IW) were chemically analysed, and a comparison was performed with wines obtained with the same grape without the use of the plant (TW). All phenolic parameters were higher in IW wines, while other substances such as alcohol, reducing sugars, acids, and volatile acidity were less affected by the different winemaking technique. A deeper yellow colour was a direct consequence of the higher phenolic content of IW wines. Panelists preferred the IW wines, which had a richer, more delicate aroma. Conclusions: The study showed that careful exclusion of air combined with preventing oxidation during the cooling process, that is realized with the considered innovative cooling plant, effectively yields pleasing wines with more character.

Fate of three insect growth regulators (IGR) insecticides (flufenoxuron, lufenuron and tebufenozide) in grapes following field application and through the wine-making process

The dissipation of three insecticide flufenoxuron, lufenuron and tebufenozide residues in grapes after field treatments and during the wine-making process was assessed. Residues were determined in grape, must, centrifuged must and wine samples by HPLC-UV after cyclohexane extraction and clean-up on silica-phase cartridges. Vines in vineyards with white and red grapes located in Central Greece were sprayed once with commercial formulations of each insecticide at the recommended doses in experiments carried out in 2004 and repeated in 2006. The insecticide residues in grapes showed slow reduction for a period of 42 days after application following first-order kinetics with dissipation rates ranged from 0.011 to 0.018 mg kg−1 day−1. However, at the recommended pre-harvest interval (PHI) residues did not exceed 0.27 ± 0.03 mg kg−1 for flufenoxuron and lufenuron and 0.68 ± 0.07 mg kg−1 for tebufenozide, and they were clearly lower than the maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by the European Union for grape (2 mg kg−1 for flufenoxuron, 1 mg kg−1 for lufenuron and 3 mg kg−1 for tebufenozide). Grape processing into wine caused an almost complete reduction for flufenoxuron and lufenuron as their residues in wine were below the method LOQs (<0.01 mg l−1), but only a moderate reduction for tebufenozide with concentrations from 0.13 to 0.26 mg l−1 measured in the produced wines. Mean transfer factors for tebufenozide of 0.45 for white ‘Roditis’ and 0.34 for red ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ were found from grapes into wine for the wines processed without maceration. The wine-making technique (with or without maceration) had the same influence on tebufenozide residues in wine. Of the various clarifying agents studied, charcoal was found to be the only one effective in removing tebufenozide residues from wine.

Effect of the winemaking technique on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics in young red wines

The effect of six winemaking techniques (traditional, prefermentative maceration, delestage, Ganimede fermentation system, enzymes and tannins addition, or oak chip addition during alcoholic fermentation) on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics of young red wines, elaborated from Mencia grapes grown in Galicia (northwestern Spain), was studied. The evolution of phenolic compounds from grapes to bottling and its influence on CIELab parameters were investigated. After bottling, 26 phenolic compounds were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and their influence on colour stability for ageing was evaluated. Principal component analysis allowed the differentiation of the winemaking techniques studied on the base of phenolic composition, which is correlated with polymerization grade of anthocyanins. This paper can contribute to improve the knowledge about the importance of selecting the winemaking technique to elaborate high-quality young red wines and to evaluate their ability for ageing. So, the addition of enzymes and tannins seems to be the most adequate winemaking technique to elaborate red wines for ageing as it results in the formation of major number of pigmented polymers that are stable over time. Nevertheless, the prefermentative maceration, Ganimede autowinemaker and the addition of oak chips can be used for the elaboration of young red wines.

Comparison of traditional and reductive winemaking: influence on some fixed components and sensorial characteristics

An explorative study to verify the applicability of reductive winemaking (RW) on two cultivars was carried out. To this purpose, traditional winemaking (TW) and RW were carried out on a semi-aromatic white grape (Sauvignon blanc) and a white neutral one (Trebbiano romagnolo). All phenolic parameters were higher in RW wines, while other substances such as alcohol, reducing sugars, acids, and volatile acidity acids were less affected by the different winemaking technique. A deeper yellow color (OD 420) was a direct consequence of the higher phenolic content of RW wines, while OD 320 was strictly related to caftaric acid integrity. Analyses showed a modification of the RW wines, also in the case of a neutral cultivar. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the data set, and the first two PCs explained almost 85% of the total variability and divided TW and RW wines in two groups to demonstrate that the effect of winemaking overwhelmed maturation differences. Panelists preferred RW wines, which were characterized by a richer and more delicate aroma. The study demonstrated that a careful exclusion of air combined with an effective oxidation prevention yields to more characterized and pleasant wines.

Identification of Tamaioasa Romaneasca and Busuioaca de Bohotin Wines' Aromatic Compounds from Pietroasa Vineyard

The volatile compounds in local origin Romanian wines represent an insufficiently researched domain. This study wants to identify aroma substances in 'Tamâioasa româneasca' and 'Busuioaca de Bohotin' wines from Pietroasa area in Dealu mare. During 2008 harvest, the grapes were processed following the classical wine-making technique. After a two weeks fermentation at 15 o C, the wine samples were filtered and bottled. A SPE extraction prior to gas-chromatography mass- spectrometry was used to determine individual aroma compounds. As expected, Tamâioasa româneasca and Busuioaca de Bohotin both have terpenic compounds, alcohols and esters that form their highly appreciated aroma. The compounds were identified using spectrum libraries NIST 08, Wiley 08 and SZTERP. The chromatograms were analysed with the specialised software of the device and also AMDIS.

Changes in the volatile composition of red wines during aging in oak barrels due to microoxygenation treatment applied before malolactic fermentation

Microoxygenation is a wine-making technique consisting in the addition of small and controlled amounts of oxygen. This study has examined the effect of this technique on the volatile composition of two red single variety wines during two successive vintages. The microoxygenation treatment was applied at the end of alcoholic fermentation and before beginning malolactic fermentation. Once the microoxygenation treatment had finished, wines were aged in new American oak barrels for 12 months. The results obtained showed that the microoxygenation treatment did not cause significant changes in the varietal and fermentation volatile compounds, however microoxygenation slowed down the extraction of some of the volatile compounds extracted from wood. A varietal and vintage effect was also observed for some of the compounds studied.

Polyphenol content and total antioxidant activity of vini novelli (young red wines).

Eight commercial Italian vini novelli (red wines prepared by carbonic maceration and supposed to be consumed within three months from their wine-making) were evaluated for their total antioxidant activity. The wines had an average total phenol content (1605.4 +/- 337.4 mg/L gallic acid equivalents) lower than that of wines prepared by traditional maceration and consumable after aging (2057. 3 +/- 524.0 mg/L gallic acid equivalents). The average flavanol content (424.7 +/- 121.3 mg/L catechin equivalents) and the total antioxidant activity (16.8 +/- 3.8 mmol/L Trolox equivalents) of vini novelli were higher than the corresponding values (382.7 +/- 174.5 mg/L catechin equivalents and 12.3 +/- 3.3 mmol/L Trolox equivalents) found for aged wines. Three couples of experimental wines were prepared from the same grapes by traditional or carbonic maceration. These wines showed a different phenolic pattern, anthocyanins being more abundant in vini novelli. However, the average total antioxidant activities of the wines were similar, suggesting that aging (and not the wine-making technique) is the main factor influencing the antioxidant activity of red wines.

Fate of Some Insecticides from Vine to Wine

The fate of residues of five insecticides (chlorpyrifos methyl, fenthion, methidathion, parathion methyl, and quinalphos) from the treatment on vine to the production of wine was studied. The influence of clarifying agents (bentonite, charcoal, potassium caseinate, gelatin, polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, and colloidal silicon dioxide) on residue concentrations in wine was also studied. The insecticide residues on grapes showed high decay rates after treatment, with first-order kinetics and half-lives ranging from 0.97 to 3.27 days. Grape processing into wine caused considerable residue reduction (>80%) for chlorpyrifos methyl, parathion methyl, and quinalphos, moderate reduction (ca. 50%) for methidathion, and almost no reduction for fenthion. The wine-making technique (with or without maceration) had the same influence on the residue concentrations in wine. The clarifying agents tested showed no or moderate influence on the residue contents in wine with the exception of charcoal, which allowed complete or almost complete elimination of insecticide residues.

Arsenic content in some Spanish wines. Influence of the wine-making technique on arsenic content in musts and wines.

All of the essential technological means of treating grapes, must and wine were examined systematically. The main reasons for the differences in the arsenic (As) content of rosé and red wines are explained. In this study a relationship has been found between the As level and the wine-making technique. Rosé wines contain more As than red wines because they require a shorter period of contact with the skins. In order to prove this, the average values for the rosé and red wine samples from the same winery were compared.