Wildlife Sector Research Articles

One Health Best Practice Case Study: Advancing National One Health Coordination in the United States through the One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization Process

Abstract The U.S. government advances One Health coordination through the best practices of jointly developing shared priorities and utilizing formalized coordination platforms to connect partners from public health, agriculture, wildlife, environment, and other sectors at the national, subnational (e.g. state, tribal, local, and territorial), and non-governmental levels (e.g. academia, industry, non-governmental organizations, and the public) levels. Coordinated efforts were strengthened through the U.S. One Health Zoonotic Disease Prioritization (OHZDP) workshop in 2017, which led to the prioritization of eight zoonotic diseases and development of next steps and action plans for One Health collaboration across federal agencies (Prioritizing Zoonotic Diseases for Multisectoral, One Health Collaboration in the United States, 2017). This One Health best practice was used to prioritize the top endemic and emerging zoonoses of greatest concern for the United States, identify gaps, and define plans for U.S. government One Health collaboration to address the priority zoonotic diseases. Multiple actions that strengthened One Health coordination were enacted, including establishing the One Health Federal Interagency COVID-19 Coordination (OH-FICC) group. To further advance One Health in the United States, Congress mandated that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of the Interior, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture collaborate to develop the National One Health Framework to Address Zoonotic Diseases and Advance Public Health Preparedness in the United States as well as formalize a One Health, multisectoral coordination mechanism, the United States One Health Coordination Unit at the federal level (Appropriations Committee Report, 2021; Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023). Enhancing national level One Health coordination in the United States has also helped advance collaboration with subnational and non-governmental levels to address timely One Health issues. Information © The Authors 2024. Open Access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

AI-Driven Strategies for Reducing Deforestation

Recent advancements in data science, coupled with the revolution in digital and satellite technology, have catalyzed the potential for artificial intelligence (AI) applications in forestry and wildlife sectors. Recognizing the critical importance of addressing land degradation and promoting regeneration for climate regulation, ecosystem services, and population well-being, there is a pressing need for effective land use planning and interventions. Traditional regression approaches often fail to capture underlying drivers' complexity and nonlinearity. In response, this research investigates the efficacy of AI in monitoring, predicting, and managing deforestation and forest degradation compared to conventional methods, with a goal to bolster global forest conservation endeavors. Employing a fusion of satellite imagery analysis and machine learning algorithms, such as convolutional neural networks and predictive modelling, the study focuses on key forest regions, including the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia. Through the utilization of these AI-driven strategies, critical deforestation hotspots have been successfully identified with an accuracy surpassing 85%, markedly higher than traditional methods. This breakthrough underscores the transformative potential of AI in enhancing the precision and efficiency of forest conservation measures, offering a formidable tool for combating deforestation and degradation on a global scale.

Spatial planning offshore wind energy farms in California for mediating fisheries and wildlife conservation impacts

Achieving a blue economy will require reconciling the value of emerging ocean uses with their impacts on the seascape and sectors with historical access to marine resources and areas. To meet this challenge, we developed an analytical framework for conducting marine spatial planning through tradeoff analysis, and applied it to prospective offshore wind energy development in the ∼974 km2 Morro Bay, California, USA Wind Energy Area (WEA). We generated spatial data layers estimating MW power production and impacts on fisheries value and marine wildlife conservation (seabird and cetacean populations) from wind farm development. We then quantified each sector's response to plans of development across the WEA and inside three leases recently acquired by the energy industry for prospective development. Finally, we integrated the sector response data into an analytical framework for mitigating sector tradeoffs with novel spatial planning solutions (maps of wind farm size, location, and configuration) that optimally maximize value to the emergent energy sector (MW power) while minimizing impacts to historical (fisheries and wildlife) sectors. We found that western sites in the WEA had the highest potential power production concurrent with the lowest impact on the historical sectors, revealing the eastern lease to be less efficient at optimally balancing the sector's objectives relative to the development of the central or western leases or the optimal spatial plans identified in the tradeoff analysis. Within a lease, tradeoff analysis found spatial planning able to generate out-sized savings in fisheries value with only modest losses in MW power – for example, by avoiding development in just 5% of the eastern lease to preserve nearly half its fisheries value and still generate 95% its total power potential. Small-scale development opportunities (e.g., a pilot project) with significant power potential and no fisheries impact were also identified, in this case by placing turbines in an area in the western lease with no fisheries value and high power production potential. These plans would also have a relatively low impact on the wildlife conservation sectors, due to decreases in vulnerability levels of both seabird and cetacean populations to turbines going from east to west across the WEA. Our results can inform site evaluation and permitting processes for wind energy development in the Morro Bay WEA. We also expect the tradeoff analysis framework we developed to provide a simple and actionable analytical tool for supporting marine spatial planning of offshore wind energy and other emerging blue economy activities from a balanced perspective that values emerging uses of marine resources alongside existing socio-economic and conservation interests.

Stakeholder attitudes and perspectives on wildlife disease surveillance as a component of a One Health approach in Thailand

Coordinated wildlife disease surveillance (WDS) can help professionals across disciplines effectively safeguard human, animal, and environmental health. The aims of this study were to understand how WDS in Thailand is utilized, valued, and can be improved within a One Health framework. An online questionnaire was distributed to 183 professionals (55.7% response rate) across Thailand working in wildlife, marine animal, livestock, domestic animal, zoo animal, environmental, and public health sectors. Twelve semi-structured interviews with key professionals were then performed. Three-quarters of survey respondents reported using WDS data and information. Sectors agreed upon ranking disease control (76.5% of respondents) as the most beneficial outcome of WDS, while fostering new ideas through collaboration was valued by few participants (2.0%). Accessing data collected by one's own sector was identified as the most challenging (50%) yet least difficult to improve (88.3%). Having legal authority to conduct WDS was the second most frequently identified challenge. Interviewees explained that legal documentation required for cross-institutional collaborations posed a barrier to efficient communication and use of human resources. Survey respondents identified allocation of human resources (75.5%), adequate budget (71.6%), and having a clear communication system between sectors (71.6%) as highest priority areas for improvement to WDS in Thailand. Authorization from administrative officials and support from local community members were identified as challenges during in-person interviews. Future outreach may be directed toward these groups. As 42.9% of marine health professionals had difficulty knowing whom to contact in other sectors and 28.4% of survey respondents indicated that communication with marine health professionals was not applicable to their work, connecting the marine sector with other sectors may be prioritized. This study identifies priorities for addressing current challenges in the establishment of a general WDS system and information management system in Thailand while presenting a model for such evaluation in other regions.

Operationalizing a community-based One Health surveillance and response in Adadle district of Ethiopia

Abstract Surveillance of human and animal health is often carried out separately worldwide, which leads to the under-reporting of zoonotic and emerging diseases. Early cross-information between wildlife, domestic animal and public health sectors may reduce both exposure and cost of outbreaks. We have assessed the feasibility of a One Health Surveillance and Response System (OHSRS) in the Adadle district of Ethiopia in the Somali Region (SRS), with regard to integration into the existing regional surveillance-response system in the Somali Region of Ethiopia (SRS). To meet the objectives of a surveillance-response system, we established a One Health Surveillance and Response Unit (OHSRU) at the district level. Community Animal Health Workers, Community Health Workers (CHWs), and both human and animal health district staff and regional experts were trained together on the OHSRS. An inception workshop was held with all relevant stakeholders. To ensure the active engagement of communities in the surveillance response system, a Community-Based Emergency Fund (CBEF) and CAHW cost recovery mechanisms were established. All public and animal health staff of different administration levels were linked together. Human and animal health information was collected and shared effectively among sectors. This approach helped bridging the physical separation between the public and animal health sectors in disease surveillance in the Adadle district. Joint interventions, such as disease outbreak investigations and community awareness were initiated by the OHSRU. We demonstrated that the OHSR was successfully operationalized in Adadle districts and contributed to improving the early detection and response of zoonotic diseases. However, technical barriers, cost-effectiveness, legality of data and ethical safeguarding, along with political commitment should be addressed to effectively operationalize the OHSR in the whole region. Designing the OHSR through the existing surveillance system, engaging communities and other relevant sectors using a participatory process is an important contribution to a sustainable OHSR. One Health Impact Statement In this research work, the public and animal health sectors collaborated in data collection and initiated joint interventions. By integrating the surveillance operational costs for disease outbreak investigation and cost of public health associated with zoonotic diseases can be reduced as One Health surveillance and response lead to early detection and response to zoonotic diseases. As one health is collaborative efforts multispectral, multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary, i.e. involvement of all relevant sectors including community members and different disciplines in the launching workshop of surveillance system helped to define and agree the role of each sectors or partner’s in the One Health approach. This played a curtail role in the success of the approach. Lessons learned from this work can be used for further improvement in One Health approach in different settings.

Increasing women’s participation in wildlife governance in Zambia

Community-based natural resource management bodies, including Community Resource Boards (CRBs) and Community Scouts, are responsible for governance and wildlife law enforcement in Zambia’s Game Management Areas (GMA), community lands that buffer the National Parks. Despite commitments to inclusive governance and benefit sharing, men dominate the wildlife and natural resource sectors in Zambia; they make up the vast majority of wildlife scouts who patrol the GMAs and hold most positions on the CRBs who allocate benefits and decide on management priorities. Gender blind structures within community governance institutions during the recruitment and training process and social and gender norms that see leadership roles as men’s domain act as barriers to women’s participation in the sector. In response, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) invested in a comprehensive package of activities to increase women’s effective participation in wildlife governance and law enforcement, including gender-responsive CRB elections, empowerment training for newly elected women candidates, revised community scout training curriculum, and capacity building support for organizations that support scouts and CRBs. The intervention helped increase women’s representation in CRBs from four percent to 25 percent in pilot communities. It also supported the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) to recruit the first gender balanced cohort of community scout recruits and field an all-women patrol unit in Lower Zambezi National Park.

Towards an integrated surveillance of zoonotic diseases in Burkina Faso: the case of anthrax

BackgroundAnthrax is a zoonotic disease that causes frequent outbreaks in livestock and fatal human cases in Burkina Faso. Effective surveillance of this disease calls for the establishment of an integrated surveillance system, in line with the One Health concept. However, despite a strong technical and financial support from international partners, surveillance is still poorly conducted within an integrated approach. Based on stakeholder perspectives, the study has for objective to deepen our understanding of the anthrax surveillance system and to identify the obstacles and levers towards a more integrated approach to anthrax surveillance in Burkina Faso.MethodsThe data was collected from a literature review and interviews with surveillance stakeholders. We first conducted a qualitative descriptive analysis of the data to characterize the surveillance system (programmes, actors, collaboration). In a second step, we conducted a thematic analysis of the informants' discourse in order to identify what represents an obstacle or, conversely, a lever for a more integrated approach to anthrax surveillance.ResultsThe surveillance system of anthrax in Burkina Faso includes three programmes (in the livestock, wildlife and human sectors), which involves 30 actors. These sectoral programmes operate almost independently from one another, although some collaborations are existing for the governance and implementation of surveillance activities. Analysis of the discourse of key stakeholders led to the identification of four categories of factors that may influence the implementation of an integrated surveillance system in the country: knowledge; technical, organizational and social capacities; motivation; intersectoral governance.ConclusionsThis study highlights the difficulty of translating One Health governance to the national level and the need to better articulate the visions of all categories of stakeholders. This study also reveals the need to develop specific evaluation systems for integrated policies in order to provide credible evidence of their added value for a better management of zoonotic diseases. Finally, our study underlines the need to act upstream the emergence of zoonoses and allocate more resources to the prevention of zoonoses than to their control.

Potential for Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) Applications in Biodiversity Conservation, Managing Forests, and Related Services in India

The recent advancement in data science coupled with the revolution in digital and satellite technology has improved the potential for artificial intelligence (AI) applications in the forestry and wildlife sectors. India shares 7% of global forest cover and is the 8th most biodiverse region in the world. However, rapid expansion of developmental projects, agriculture, and urban areas threaten the country’s rich biodiversity. Therefore, the adoption of new technologies like AI in Indian forests and biodiversity sectors can help in effective monitoring, management, and conservation of biodiversity and forest resources. We conducted a systematic search of literature related to the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms (ML) in the forestry sector and biodiversity conservation across globe and in India (using ISI Web of Science and Google Scholar). Additionally, we also collected data on AI-based startups and non-profits in forest and wildlife sectors to understand the growth and adoption of AI technology in biodiversity conservation, forest management, and related services. Here, we first provide a global overview of AI research and application in forestry and biodiversity conservation. Next, we discuss adoption challenges of AI technologies in the Indian forestry and biodiversity sectors. Overall, we find that adoption of AI technology in Indian forestry and biodiversity sectors has been slow compared to developed, and to other developing countries. However, improving access to big data related to forest and biodiversity, cloud computing, and digital and satellite technology can help improve adoption of AI technology in India. We hope that this synthesis will motivate forest officials, scientists, and conservationists in India to explore AI technology for biodiversity conservation and forest management.

Co-production of knowledge as part of a OneHealth approach to better control zoonotic diseases.

There is increased global and national attention on the need for effective strategies to control zoonotic diseases. Quick, effective action is, however, hampered by poor evidence-bases and limited coordination between stakeholders from relevant sectors such as public and animal health, wildlife and forestry sectors at different scales, who may not usually work together. The OneHealth approach recognises the value of cross-sectoral evaluation of human, animal and environmental health questions in an integrated, holistic and transdisciplinary manner to reduce disease impacts and/or mitigate risks. Co-production of knowledge is also widely advocated to improve the quality and acceptability of decision-making across sectors and may be particularly important when it comes to zoonoses. This paper brings together OneHealth and knowledge co-production and reflects on lessons learned for future OneHealth co-production processes by describing a process implemented to understand spill-over and identify disease control and mitigation strategies for a zoonotic disease in Southern India (Kyasanur Forest Disease). The co-production process aimed to develop a joint decision-support tool with stakeholders, and we complemented our approach with a simple retrospective theory of change on researcher expectations of the system-level outcomes of the co-production process. Our results highlight that while co-production in OneHealth is a difficult and resource intensive process, requiring regular iterative adjustments and flexibility, the beneficial outcomes justify its adoption. A key future aim should be to improve and evaluate the degree of inter-sectoral collaboration required to achieve the aims of OneHealth. We conclude by providing guidelines based on our experience to help funders and decision-makers support future co-production processes.

How Policy and Development Agencies Led to the Degradation of Indigenous Resources, Institutions, and Social-Ecological Systems in Nepal: Some Insights and Opinions

Rapid growth of environmental problems, economic volatilities, and social changes have increased the scopes of adopting environmentally friendly and resilient production systems. Regenerative farming and forestry practices are such systems appropriate for mountain communities in Nepal. They had performed better with indigenous resources, institutions, and social-ecological systems. Unfortunately, the assets have been degraded to extinction, mainly commencing works of national and international development agencies. Consequently, regenerative practices are disappearing. Despite appeals and commitments, the degradations of the assets are not halted and reversed. This study used secondary sources of data and work experiences and explained the working faults of the external agencies involved in the agriculture, forestry, and wildlife sectors. It elucidated that most regenerative practices had sustained well in forest and farm resource-integrated production systems and a modest degree of natural and human inputs and production environments. The production environments degraded when the government agencies provided foreign agencies opportunities to be involved actively in policy formulation and implementation of agriculture and forestry-related sectors. The foreign agencies meddled in the national policies and community practices and modified the production environments for their interests and benefits. They intervened in policies and local communities to practice a farming system based on extremely human-made and imported inputs and institutions and to manage forest-related resources in extremely intact natural systems. In the policy discourses and decisions, the farming inputs, practices, and institutions popularly practiced in developed countries are considered superior whereas the indigenous ones are considered inferior. Agricultural plans and policies have overvalued flash yield or other direct returned and undervalued environmental friendliness, indirect economic benefits, and social advantages to prioritize support of the government and other agencies. The introduced farming inputs and institutions displaced or hampered the indigenous ones. The foreign agencies also meddled in forest policies and practices of the country to address environmental and economic problems of developed countries which resulted in adverse impacts on the indigenous assets. They intervened in the resource management policies with financial and technical inputs to destroy some of the assets and make the forest-related resource management that results in better benefits (offsetting GHG emission, enhancing tranquility and serenity of recreational sites, and potentially expanding agricultural markets) to the people of developed countries. This study has explained how the officials and experts of both government and foreign agencies abused and misused some strategic tactics and overused, poorly used and disused, others in their work process to address their self-centered interests and problems. In essence, intentional destructive interventions of the policy and development agencies have resulted in degradation to the extinction of the indigenous assets in the communities.

Blockchain Technology Concept for Improving Supply Chain Traceability in the Ivory Market

Supply chain traceability is gaining momentum as a means to gain visibility across the supply chain. In order to curb poaching in wildlife sector and harvesting of resources such as ivory, there is need to introduce full proof technologies. This article proposes use of blockchain in tracing the supply chain of ivory and other wildlife products, from source to destination. The article is based on literature review on wildlife practices. Ivory trade participants were identified and mapped into a blockchain model using blockchain modeling techniques. The proposed blockchain approach allows transaction recording as blocks and visibility to relevant participants.

Two decades of one health surveillance of Nipah virus in Thailand

BackgroundNipah virus (NiV) infection causes encephalitis and has > 75% mortality rate, making it a WHO priority pathogen due to its pandemic potential. There have been NiV outbreak(s) in Malaysia, India, Bangladesh, and southern Philippines. NiV naturally circulates among fruit bats of the genus Pteropus and has been detected widely across Southeast and South Asia. Both Malaysian and Bangladeshi NiV strains have been found in fruit bats in Thailand. This study summarizes 20 years of pre-emptive One Health surveillance of NiV in Thailand, including triangulated surveillance of bats, and humans and pigs in the vicinity of roosts inhabited by NiV-infected bats.MethodsSamples were collected periodically and tested for NiV from bats, pigs and healthy human volunteers from Wat Luang village, Chonburi province, home to the biggest P. lylei roosts in Thailand, and other provinces since 2001. Archived cerebrospinal fluid specimens from encephalitis patients between 2001 and 2012 were also tested for NiV. NiV RNA was detected using nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). NiV antibodies were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or multiplex microsphere immunoassay.ResultsNiV RNA (mainly Bangladesh strain) was detected every year in fruit bats by RT-PCR from 2002 to 2020. The whole genome sequence of NiV directly sequenced from bat urine in 2017 shared 99.17% identity to NiV from a Bangladeshi patient in 2004. No NiV-specific IgG antibodies or RNA have been found in healthy volunteers, encephalitis patients, or pigs to date. During the sample collection trips, 100 community members were trained on how to live safely with bats.ConclusionsHigh identity shared between the NiV genome from Thai bats and the Bangladeshi patient highlights the outbreak potential of NiV in Thailand. Results from NiV cross-sectoral surveillance were conveyed to national authorities and villagers which led to preventive control measures, increased surveillance of pigs and humans in vicinity of known NiV-infected roosts, and increased vigilance and reduced risk behaviors at the community level. This proactive One Health approach to NiV surveillance is a success story; that increased collaboration between the human, animal, and wildlife sectors is imperative to staying ahead of a zoonotic disease outbreak.

A tool for rapid assessment of wildlife markets in the Asia-Pacific Region for risk of future zoonotic disease outbreaks

Decades of warnings that the trade and consumption of wildlife could result in serious zoonotic pandemics have gone largely unheeded. Now the world is ravaged by COVID-19, with tremendous loss of life, economic and societal disruption, and dire predictions of more destructive and frequent pandemics. There are now calls to tightly regulate and even enact complete wildlife trade bans, while others call for more nuanced approaches since many rural communities rely on wildlife for sustenance. Given pressures from political and societal drivers and resource limitations to enforcing bans, increased regulation is a more likely outcome rather than broad bans. But imposition of tight regulations will require monitoring and assessing trade situations for zoonotic risks. We present a tool for relevant stakeholders, including government authorities in the public health and wildlife sectors, to assess wildlife trade situations for risks of potentially serious zoonoses in order to inform policies to tightly regulate and control the trade, much of which is illegal in most countries. The tool is based on available knowledge of different wildlife taxa traded in the Asia-Pacific Region and known to carry highly virulent and transmissible viruses combined with relative risks associated with different broad categories of market types and trade chains.

Gaps in health security related to wildlife and environment affecting pandemic prevention and preparedness, 2007-2020.

ObjectiveTo describe and quantify the extent of wildlife and environment sector inclusion in country evaluation and prioritization tools for health security, and to provide practical recommendations for global and national action to improve pandemic prevention and preparedness.MethodsTo assess coverage of wildlife and other environmental aspects, we reviewed major health security reports (including World Organisation for Animal Health Performance of Veterinary Services reports, and World Health Organization Joint External Evaluations and follow-on National Action Plans for Health Security) published by 107 countries and territories. We extracted information on stated coverage gaps, wildlife surveillance systems and priority diseases. We also searched National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans published by 125 countries to assess whether disease surveillance or prevention activities were included.FindingsWe noted that the occurrence frequency of keywords indicative of wildlife, environment, biodiversity and climate factors varied with type of report and between countries. We found that more than half (57.9%, 62/107) of the reporting countries did not provide any evidence of a functional wildlife health surveillance programme. Most countries (83.2%, 89/107) indicated specific gaps in operations, coordination, scope or capacity. Only eight of the 125 countries (6.4%) publishing a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan reported tangible activities related to wildlife health or zoonotic disease.ConclusionOverall, despite their importance for pandemic prevention, wildlife and environmental considerations are neglected in health security priorities and plans. Strengthening wildlife health capacity and operations should be emphasized in One Health efforts to monitor and mitigate known and novel disease risks.

Development and Adoption of Landscape Approach to Conservation in India: An Overview

In India, the development process from Protected Area management to landscape level conservation planning has traversed through several species conservation initiatives and pilot projects. However, the latter approach faces enormous challenges. In this paper we review the existing management practices in the country that deal with landscape approach to conservation, identify bottlenecks and suggest way forward, particularly relevant to forestry and wildlife sectors. Highlighting the major areas of research and action, this paper advocates the urgent need to build on the experiences from the sites, which have developed some foundation for such initiatives through earlier projects.

Will Tanzania’s Wildlife Sector Survive the COVID-19 Pandemic?

The COVID-19 pandemic presents a potential threat to wildlife resources in Africa. In this review, using Tanzania as a case, we examine the impacts and risks that wildlife sectors in Africa are facing or are likely to face as a result of this pandemic. We recognize loss of revenues from tourism as a major impact that could negatively influence the management of wildlife species and habitats. Loss of tourism revenues reduces capacity of the conservation agencies to fund conservation operations and support the benefit sharing schemes. Furthermore, it undermines the efficacy of conservation to compete with alternative economic activities which are ecologically damaging. Increased unemployment and household poverty due to closure of businesses may exacerbate wildlife crime and unsustainable activities. Additionally, contributions from donor-funding organizations and development partners cannot be guaranteed as revenues may be diverted to support other sectors including health. In order to address and minimize the impacts and reduce the risks to the wildlife sector, the following policy measures are recommended: ensure adequate budget for conservation; develop a crisis management plan; reconsider protocols for conducting wildlife trade; develop a comprehensive tourism recovery plan; promote scientific studies focusing on zoonoses and adopt a One-Health Approach as a matter of urgency in dealing with COVID-19 and future pandemics.

The Use of Law in Wildlife Management

This paper is a commentary on the suitability of using law in wildlife management, and on the role that the law can play in conservation and management of wildlife and wildlife resources. It is based on the hypothesis that law is an important tool for regulating social conduct and enforcing policy, and can play an important role in achieving sustainable wildlife management. The author holds the view that having no law at all, or having irrelevant, unsuitable, inappropriate and ineffective laws is unhelpful, and will in the end be counter-productive and a liability to the conservation agenda. The paper has critically addressed these concerns. Being a commentary, it presents the author’s personal views and opinion(s), but also draws from documented research and diverse views of other researchers, scholars, and commentators on the subject. It has also drawn from literature survey and arm-chair study, as well as views and information gathered by the author in previous research whose data and findings have been published. Virtually all societies, from the primitive society to the modern society, have had some form of law or legal ordering; with informal legal ordering in the former and more formalized laws in the latter. The enterprise of law (legal ordering) is so crucial that it has permeated all sectors of society and aspects of life, in such a way that a society without law is unfathomable. Laws have been used from time immemorial including the antecedent biblical times for: Societal ordering; defining rights and duties; prescribing standards for actions and conduct; proscribing harmful and undesirable conduct; punishing undesirable and prohibited conduct; addressing society’s problems; establishing mechanisms for dispute adjudication and dispute resolution; as well as reconciling and mitigating competing (and often conflicting) interests. Admittedly, law has permeated all sectors of society, including the wildlife sector; such that there are rules, regulations and laws on wildlife. This is to the extent that there has even developed a genre of law that may be described as wildlife management law, or simply wildlife law; with its own professionals, its own textbooks, and its own jurisprudence. This law has provisions: On wildlife ownership and use; for establishing wildlife agencies and spelling out their respective duties; for protecting wildlife from harm, especially that arising from human conduct and activities; for protecting wildlife habitats from encroachment by humans; and for mitigating the negative costs of wildlife such as competition for resources as well as wildlife predation and depredation. While law has some advantages that make it suitable for that purpose, it also has certain limitations. There are also several factors that determine or affect the effectiveness of laws (determinants)—mainly institutional ones. In that even with properly formulated laws, for law to be effective and play its intended role, there is need for those factors (determinants) to be addressed. They include: The relevance and suitability of the particular laws to the local circumstances of the locality in which they are applied; the acceptability of such laws to stakeholders and the general public; whether those laws set up effective mechanisms for dispute adjudication and dispute settlement; whether those laws are backed with appropriate policy frameworks and effective institutional arrangements.

The Nature of Cultural and Heritage Tourism in Greater Polokwane, Limpopo, South Africa

Cultural tourism is a fast growing sector in Africa, with many museums and art galleries offering cultural experiences. South Africa, with a large array of cultural products, is actively promoting cultural tourism due to its ability to foster local economic growth and job creation. One such locality in dire need of economic growth is Limpopo Province. Thereupon, it is argued that Greater Polokwane should leverage its significant cultural landmarks and landscapes to promote this form of tourism. However, currently, the size and shape of the cultural and heritage tourism sector in this geographical area is unknown, as scholarly attention has focussed on the wildlife and hunting tourism sectors in this province of South Africa. Ergo, this study outlines the nature of the cultural and heritage tourism industry in Greater Polokwane. This study firstly created a database of cultural organisations and then gathered data by conducting in-depth, semi-structured interviews with the managers and employees. It was found that all the cultural organisations are privately operated, although some are located on State owned-land. The findings indicate that the museums and art galleries generate jobs and foster local economic development; however, they lack the resources to expand and consequently operate below capacity. This has important implications for the viability, growth, and sustainability of cultural and heritage tourism in South Africa.

Power Game: Position of the Dominant Actors in Public Assets Management of Forest and Wildlife Sectors

This paper provides an understanding of the issues which emerged as a result of the prevailing power struggle to control agendas and resources that take place between actors in policy making process related to forest and wildlife management. The paper helps to learn the manner in which actors relate in the power game. The paper examines the way change in bureaucratic paradigm has affected other actors’ interests and beliefs in designing as well as implementing policies for improving forest and wildlife management in Tanzania. The paper reveals that more reform efforts are needed to eradicate classical public administration bureaucratic paradigm and increase the power of local communities and private sector by fully adopting the new public management in Tanzania public sectors of forest and wildlife conservation. The paper suggests that current poor policy outcomes are the result of the strong beliefs and adherence by bureaucrats to the existing policy, legal and regulatory frames on one hand, and loss of other actors’ interests and beliefs (i.e. local communities and the private sector interests and beliefs) into the current systems and processes which also include policy, legal and regulatory frames, on the other. The paper shows that the present policy, legal and regulatory frames collectively contradict and discourage participation of key actors in designing and implementing policies. The paper further indicates that local communities’ and the private sector’s ideas are without doubt weapons or strategic tools which can have political, social and economic influence, but unfortunately at the moment MNRT has not been able to make use of such weapons to improve the poor policy outcomes. Hence, paper suggests that the ideas which are needed to design and implement policies must serve the interests of the dominant actors (i.e. local communities and the private sector, according to Forest Policy 1998 and the Revised Wildlife Policy 2007) by strengthening their position in the power game of designing and implementing policies. Currently, the ideas which are being used in power game of designing and implementing policies are those coming from bureaucrats and development partners, thereby weakening the position of the local communities and private sector as dominant actors. The weak position of local communities and the private sector in the power game has led to the formulation and implementation of weak policy provisions and eventually produced poor policy outcomes. Therefore, paper further suggests that status quo of marginalisation of key actors in designing and implementing policies should and can be avoided. At the moment, bureaucrats may have designed policies, legislations and regulations that allows them to take more control over forest and wildlife resources. However, paper shows that local communities have more opportunities than the bureaucrats which increases their power to defy the laws and regulations introduced, such as preventing encroachments into the forest and wildlife reserves. Similarly, the private sector may choose to withhold their technical and financial prowess. Thus, MNRT should make use of the opportunities possessed by local communities and the private sector, as compared to current marginalisation. Additionally, MNRT should recognise that interaction and mutual trust are necessary in any established social system. Keywords: Bureaucratic Paradigm, New Public Management, Classical Public Administration, Forest and Wildlife Management, Tanzania DOI: 10.7176/PPAR/10-10-09 Publication date: October 31 st 2020

Anatomic study of the arterial vascularization of the brain base of paca (Cuniculus paca)

ABSTRACT: Paca (Cuniculus paca Linnaeus, 1766), rodent belong to the Cuniculidae family, has encouraged numerous scientific researches and for this reason could be an experimental model in both human and veterinary areas. And recently, the economic exploitation of the meat cuts, has being direct implication in its zootechnical importance. However, no anatomical descriptions regarding the vascularization of the base of the brain in this rodent has being found. Thus, the aim of the present study was to describe the arteries and the pattern of the vasculature and to compare it with the other species already established in the literature. For this, five pacas, donated by the Unesp Jaboticabal Wildlife Sector, were euthanized followed by the vascular arterial system was injected with red-stained-centrifuged latex by the common carotid artery. After craniectomy, the brains were removed and the arteries were identified and, in addition, compared with those described in other animal species. The presence of the right and left vertebral arteries, close to the medulla oblongata, was detected, originating the basilar artery, which divided into the terminal branches of the right and left basilar artery. Ventral to the optic tract there was the right internal carotid artery and the left, dividing the middle cerebral artery and left rostral and right; dorsal to the optic chiasm, the medial branch of the rostral cerebral arteries was identified. Based on the results, it is concluded that the vascularization of the paca brain base is supplied by the carotid and vertebrobasilar system.