Wild Northern Bobwhites Research Articles

Host Specificity of Oxyspirura petrowi in Wild Turkey

The Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas hosts the highest known prevalence and intensity of the eyeworm Oxyspirura petrowi among Colinus virginianus (Northern Bobwhite) in the US. Meleagris gallopavo (Wild Turkey) and the Northern Bobwhite have a similar diet (i.e., facultative insectivore), overlapping ranges, and phylogenetic relatedness (i.e., Galliformes); thus, we expected Wild Turkeys sympatric with an infected population of wild Northern Bobwhites to also host eyeworms. In 2014, we dissected 104 Wild Turkey and 50 Northern Bobwhite heads from a 27,530-ha area in Roberts County, TX. Only 1 turkey (female) was infected with a single eyeworm. Prevalence, mean abundance (± SE), and mean intensity (± SE) among Northern Bobwhites on the same area was 58%, 7.6 ± 1.8, and 13.1 ± 2.7, respectively. Eyeworm prevalence between Northern Bobwhite males (n = 25, 64%) and females (n = 25, 52%) was not statistically different (P = 0.57). Mean abundance (± SE) was similar between males (8.8 ± 2.6) and females (6.4 ± 2.5; P = 0.53), and mean intensity between males (13.7 ± 3.5) and females (12.4 ± 4.3) did not differ (P = 0.71). Wild Turkeys do not appear to be suitable hosts for O. petrowi.

Molecular identification of Physaloptera sp. from wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas.

Physaloptera spp. are common nematodes found in the stomach and muscles of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Physaloptera spp. have a complicated life cycle with multiple definitive hosts, arthropod intermediate hosts, aberrant infections, and possible second intermediate hosts or paratenic hosts. For example, Physaloptera sp. larvae have been found within the tissues of wild northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), and it is suspected that quail may serve as paratenic or secondary hosts of these parasites. However, because it is not known what role quail play in the life cycle of Physaloptera spp. and descriptions of Physaloptera spp. larvae are limited, molecular tools may be beneficial when identifying these helminths. In this study, we generated primers using universal nematode primers and obtained a partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX 1) sequence. Morphological identification of Physaloptera sp. in bobwhite was confirmed via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the maximum likelihood method. BLAST analysis revealed a strong identity to other Physaloptera spp. and the phylogenetic tree placed all Physaloptera spp. in the same cluster. We also documented a marked increase in Physaloptera infections in bobwhite from 2017 to 2018, and the similarity of these parasites to Onchocerca volvulus and Wuchereria bancrofti may give insight into the increased prevalence we observed. This study demonstrates the usefulness of molecular techniques to confirm the identity of species that may lack adequate descriptions and provides new insight for the diagnosis and potentially overlooked significance of Physaloptera sp. infections of bobwhite in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas.

Effects of food supplementation on the nesting dynamics of wild northern bobwhite

Avian females with food limitation or are unable to meet nutritional requirements could result in negatively influenced egg size, nest initiation date, nesting season duration, and clutch size. Northern bobwhites Colinus virginianus serve as an adequate model species for supplemental feeding studies because of prolific nesting and re‐nesting behavior. We monitored females on treatment and control units to determine if food supplementation influenced: 1) nest initiation, nesting duration, and nesting attempts, 2) nesting success, and 3) egg volume and clutch size. We radio‐marked 196 female bobwhites during the breeding season of 2011 and 2012. Hens with access to supplemental feed produced 0.86 and 1.60 nest per hen while hens on control sites produced 0.15 and 0.81 nest per hen during the 2011 and 2012 nesting season, respectively. Average nest initiation varied slightly between treatment and control; though, average nesting season length was 16 and 31 days longer on treatment units. This benefit indicates females with access to food supplementation were in better physical condition compared to females on control units. However, nest success (β = ‐0.03, SE = 0.40), clutch size (t=‐0.37, p = 0.70), and average intra‐clutch egg volumes (β =‐0.06, SE = 0.20) (t=0.50, p= 0.61) were unaffected by food supplementation. Total net productivity estimates showed more chicks per hen were produced on treatment sites [ = 2.34, SE = 0.04 (2011); = 5.75, SE = 0.12 (2012)] than control units [ = 0.61, SE = 0.001 (2011); = 3.47, SE = 0.13 (2012)]. Our results suggest that bobwhites with access to supplemental feed broadcast into roadside vegetation throughout the breeding season can potentially increase nesting attempts which may result in increased production and offset population fluctuations due to drought conditions.

Regional surveillance of parasitic infections in wild Northern Bobwhite Quail (Colinus virginianus) utilizing a mobile research laboratory platform

AbstractNorthern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), a popular gamebird among hunters, have been declining over recent decades in the Rolling Plains ecoregion. Investigations in the past few years have revealed a high prevalence of eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi) and caecal worms (Aulonocephalus pennula) in this ecoregion, prompting a need to better understand their host–parasite interaction and other factors that influence infection. In this study, the efficiency of a mobile laboratory was tested by deploying it to three field sites in the Rolling Plains between July and August of 2017 and collecting cloacal swabs from bobwhites. The DNA was extracted from swabs for quantitative PCR and was run in the mobile and reference laboratory to specifically detectA. pennulaandO. petrowiinfection. When compared with the Wildlife Toxicology's reference laboratory, the mobile laboratory had a 97 and 99% agreement forA. pennulaandO. petrowi, respectively. There were no significant differences in infection levels between field sites. Due to its efficiency, it is proposed that the mobile laboratory would be an effective way to monitor infection levels, in addition to factors that may affect infection such as climate, diapause, and intermediate host populations.

Molecular identification and characterization of partial COX1 gene from caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) in Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) from the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas.

Aulonocephalus pennula is a nematode living in the caeca of the wild Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) present throughout the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas. The cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX 1) gene of the mitochondrial genome was used to screen A. pennula in wild quail. Through BLAST analysis, similarity of A. pennula to other nematode parasites was compared at the nucleotide level. Phylogenetic analysis of A. pennula COX1 indicated relationships to Subuluridae, Ascarididae, and Anisakidae. This study on molecular characterization of A. pennula provides new insight for the diagnosis of caecal worm infections of quail in the Rolling plains Ecoregion of Texas.

Comparison of Survival, Productivity, Movements, and Habitat Use of Pre-Season Released Quail on Wild Northern Bobwhites on Groton Plantation, South Carolina

To understand the effects of a pre-season release operation (liberating pen-raised quail for hunter harvest) on native quail (Colinus virginianus) populations, we developed studies to assess population demographics and movements of three treatment groups (wild, pen, and wild/pen quail) on Groton Plantation, Allendale County, South Carolina. Two isolated study sites were selected: a site with only wild quail (control) and a site with both wild quail and pen-raised quail released each September (treatment). We radio-tagged wild (n = 306) and pen-raised (n = 330) quail during 1996 and 1997, for monitoring various demographic parameters, including body weight, survival rate, home range, habitat use, linear dispersal, and hunting susceptibility. Based on data from this study, the release of pen-raised quail affected the behavioral characteristics of wild quail and possibly physical characteristics such as body weight. Individual body weight measurements indicated that a higher percentage of wild/pen quail weighing more than wild quail during both years (March 1996 and 1997). While these data are not direct measurements of introgression, reproductive success of pen-raised quail was observed during two consecutive breeding seasons (44% and 22%). Behavioral characteristics such as home range size, habitat-use, and linear dispersal were different between wild/pen and wild control quail during specific periods (i.e., season and year) potentially causing lower survival rates (0.077 ± 0.074) during the 1997 overwinter season and increased hunter susceptibility. While the pre-season release of pen-raised quail can produce economically efficient hunting, negative impacts on native quail population may occur.

Geographic Survey of Oxyspirura Petrowi Among Wild Northern Bobwhites in the United States

Eyeworms (Oxyspirura petrowi) are potentially associated with northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) declines. We examined hunter-donated bobwhites from the 2013–2015 hunting seasons in 9 states to document infection prevalence (% of bobwhites [of total n]) and intensity (mean no. of eyeworms ± SE). Four states harbored infected bobwhites: Texas (59.1% [n = 110], 15.6 ± 2.1), Oklahoma (52.1% [n = 121], 6.9 ± 1.2), Virginia (14.8% [n = 27], 2.5 ± 1.0), and Alabama (1.6% [n = 61], 2.0). Prevalence and intensity of eyeworms in the Texas Rolling Plains were greater (P < 0.001 and P = 0.002, respectively) than in any other area sampled. Based on our survey, eyeworms are locally prevalent and abundant in bobwhites from the Rolling Plains ecoregion, but virtually nonexistent in many areas that we surveyed.

Construction of Species-Specific PCR Primers for Detection of Coccidia Parasites in Captive-Reared Northern Bobwhites

Captive rearing and subsequent release of game birds, including northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), has become common in certain areas. In this practice, bobwhites are often raised in confinement to ‘flight ready’ and subsequently released for hunting. It is estimated that 30–40 million bobwhites are raised in captivity annually and some farms in the USA produce upwards of 1 million birds annually for this market. Raising game birds in these densities greatly facilitates the transmission of pathogenic organisms. Coccidiosis has been previously identified as an important disease in captive bobwhites and infection can lead to weight loss, diarrhea, poor feather growth, dehydration and, in severe cases, death. Eimeria lettyae, E. colini, and E. dispersa are the three described coccidia species from bobwhites. We investigated the prevalence and distribution of species of coccidia in captive bobwhite facilities throughout the United States. We collected litter or intestinal samples from 31captive bobwhite facilities originating from 13 states. Species-specific PCR primers were constructed against the internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS-1) of the ribosomal RNA gene of the various Eimeria spp. to aid in parasite detection and distinction. Primers were used to detect the specific Eimeria spp. in the collected samples. All 31 samples were positive for coccidia. Results of the primer survey disclosed E. lettyae, E. dispersa, and an unidentified Eimeria sp. in 20 (64.5%), 22 (72%), and 29 (93.5%) of the samples, respectively. Thirteen (41.9%) samples had 3 Eimeria spp. detected, 14 (45.2%) samples had 2 spp. detected, and 4 (12.9%) samples had 1 sp. detected. Flock age or geographical location was not associated with the presence of any particular Eimeria spp. To our knowledge, this is the first study of coccidia in captive bobwhites. Previous studies of Eimeria spp. in wild northern bobwhite are rare and disclosed variable prevalence rates ranging from 0 to 36%; no efforts were made to distinguish the coccidia species in these studies It would be helpful to use the species-specific primers constructed in this study to examine the prevalence and distribution of the Eimeria spp. in wild bobwhites from throughout their range to investigate the potential for captive-raised bobwhites to be a source of coccidiosis for wild bobwhites.

Evaluating Hunting Success of Pen-Reared and Wild Northern Bobwhite in a Reclaimed Kentucky Mineland

Northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) have experienced severe population declines across their distribution. In order to address population declines and to continue providing hunting opportunities, multi-state efforts have been undertaken to stabilize and restore bobwhite populations. Ongoing efforts using the National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative’s quail focus area approach have so far demonstrated success throughout Kentucky. However, population increases in the Peabody Bobwhite Focal Area, in western Kentucky, have not been correlated to increases in perceived hunter success. Consequently, some sportsmen question the effectiveness of focal area conservation. In response to hunter concerns, we tested dog hunting ability with wild and pen-reared bobwhites. We also measured evasive behaviors of wild bobwhite using radiotelemetry. During the 2013–2014 and 2014–2015 hunting seasons we conducted 114 dog trials. Dogs detected bobwhite during 46 of 59 (78.0%) pen-reared trials and 16 of 55 (29.1%) wild bird trials. When dogs did not detect wild quail, birds ran away 64.1% of the time and remained motionless 20.5% of the time. Using an information-theoretic approach, we determined that bird type (wild vs. pen-reared) had a significant effect on bird detection, with dogs 8.62 times more likely to detect pen-reared birds than wild birds. We recommend that hunters be informed about differences in dog detection rates between pen-reared and wild bobwhite so that public support needed for wild bobwhite restoration can persist.

Relationship Among Plasma Tiglycerides, Body Mass, Reproduction of Northern Bobwhites

The earliest potential initiation of northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) reproduction is limited by photoperiod. Secondary factors such as lipid reserves, diet, and stress often limit the beginning of northern bobwhite reproduction, potentially reducing reproductive success and causing a shorter reproductive season. We measured late winter body masses and plasma triglycerides of wild northern bobwhites and subsequent reproductive timing and effort in 1997 and 1998 on the coastal prairie of Texas. Using body mass and plasma triglyceride levels as indices of body fat, we tested the hypothesis that the onset of reproduction and first clutch size was influenced by late winter lipid reserves. Northern bobwhite plasma triglycerides were higher (P < 0.001) and more variable (P = 0.019) in 1998, and nesting began 15 ± 1.6 days (c ± SE) earlier than in 1997. However, within each year, no combination of body mass and triglycerides was associated with timing of nesting or size of first clutch (P > 0.1). In addition, body masses were not correlated with plasma triglycerides (P > 0.1). Our findings suggest that individual plasma triglyceride levels and body mass are unsuitable variables for assessing within-population differences in reproductive timing. However, mean plasma triglycerides for a population may be useful for assessing differences in reproductive timing among years and locations. The relationship between triglycerides and hormones directly affecting gonadal recrudescence, such as luteinizing hormone (LH) and prolactin, is uncertain for wild northern bobwhites. Thus, future studies should assess causes and patterns of change in these hormones.

Survival and Flight Characteristics of Captive-Reared and Wild Northern Bobwhites in Texas

Introductions of captive-reared northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) to bolster native populations have been largely unsuccessful. We compared the survival and flight characteristics of game-farm (n 46), first-generation (F1) (n = 48), wild translocated (n = 45), and wild native (n = 50) northern bobwhites. In November 1993, all birds were radio-collared, leg banded, sexed, and aged. Birds were then released on a study area in Brooks County, Texas in groups of about 15, 1 bird at a time. Upon release, the direction of departure, speed, and time required to reach cover were recorded. The mean flight speed and distance flown for wild bobwhites was significantly greater (P < 0.01) than captive-reared bobwhites. Wild native, wild translocated, and F1 groups were non-randomly distributed in direction of departure at release site (P < 0.01). Survival of wild groups was significantly higher than captive-raised groups (P < 0.05). The major cause of mortality in all groups was mammalian depredation. Fifteen F1 quail and 1 game-farm quail integrated into wild coveys. Our results re-confirm the inability of game-farm and first-generation northern bobwhites to survive in the wild, and we offer flight speed as one potential causal factor.

Comparing the Accuracy of Egg Candling and Egg Flotation to Estimate the Hatching Date of Northern Bobwhite Clutches

Comparing the Accuracy of Egg Candling and Egg Flotation to Estimate the Hatching Date of Northern Bobwhite Clutches

The Effect of Age-At-Release on Survival of Adoptive Parent-Reared Bobwhite Chicks

Translocation of wild northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) to restore local populations is a viable conservation tool under some scenarios; however, the supply of wild bobwhites is limited. Bobwhites can be artificially propagated, as an alternative to translocation, using methods that mimic natural brood-rearing. The parent-rearing adoptive process (PRAP) uses wild-strain bobwhite adults to brood and foster newly hatched wild-strain chicks in outdoor aviaries that emulate a natural environment. Adoptive parent-reared bobwhites have higher survival rates than artificially-reared bobwhites but only a single age-of-release (i.e., 6-weeks) has been tested. We tested the effect of age-at-release (3, 6, and 9-weeks) on adoptive parent-reared chicks released on the same date in Hanna Hammock of Tall Timbers Research Station. All chicks were marked with patagial wing tags and a subset of the group received radio transmitters. The 3-week-olds (n = 25) received suture-style transmitters and 6-week-olds (n = 30) and 9-week-olds (n = 30) received necklace-style transmitters. Our adoptive parent-reared chicks had low survival rates over 3 months post-release, the 9-week age group had the highest overall survival rates which could portend that increased physiological development may aid in increasing the survivability of adoptive parent-reared bobwhites. The low survival rates across all 3 age classes calls into question the efficacy of the PRAP as a bobwhite restoration method. Our results do suggest that additional modifications to release age (> 9-weeks) should be explored along with further modifications to the PRAP. Additional modifications include incorporating predator avoidance training, altering release dates, and changing nutritional regimes. These results should caution the bobwhite community to remain suspect when deriving conclusions about the PRAP until all process modifications have been fully evaluated by scientific research.

Factors Influencing Northern Bobwhite Hunting Success on Two South Georgia Plantations

Success of wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) management programs on private lands is most often measured by the rate of coveys pointed during the hunting season. Thus, managers of these properties are keenly interested in factors that influence hunting success. We examined how coveys pointed/hour, a measure of hunting success, was influenced by time of hunting season, time of day, weather parameters, and supplemental feeding on 2 intensively-managed plantations over 4 years. There were significant annual differences in the number of coveys pointed/hour among the 4 study years, but hunting success did not vary during the hunting season. Afternoon hunts had consistently higher success rates than morning hunts; however, the effect size was variable from year to year. The selected weather model indicated an interaction between 12-hr barometric pressure change and starting air pressure; hunting success increased with a rapid pressure increase that resulted in a high pressure value at the start of the hunt. A secondary weather model documented a negative relationship between starting air temperature and hunting success. The number of days since supplemental feed was spread had no significant effect on hunting success in 5 of 6 years for the 2 plantations over 3 years. Knowledge of how these variables influence hunting success should improve hunting and provide realistic expectations of hunt success for a given set of circumstances.

Survival of Northern Bobwhites on Areas With and Without Liberated Bobwhites

Increases in pen-raised quail releases are often implicated in the precipitous region-wide decline of wild northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). Therefore, we compared survival rates of wild radio-tagged northern bobwhites on a study area that received an influx of liberated pen-raised bobwhites from a neighboring property to those of wild bobwhites on a control area during 3 years in southwest Georgia. A total of 302 radio-tagged wild bobwhites were monitored on the wild-release (113) and wild-only areas (189) for a 22 week period from fall to spring each year during November 1993-April 1996. Fall-spring survival of wild bobwhites on the wild-only area (S = 0.43) was greater (P = 0.005) than that of wild bobwhites on the wild-release area (S = 0.18) for the 3 years combined. Losses to avian predation accounted for 38% and 58% of the fall population, respectively. Increased avian predation on the wildrelease area may have been attributed to avian predators attracted to the area.

Value of Private Lands Managed for Wild Northern Bobwhites in the Deep South

Successful northern bobwhite (Colinus virginiaus) management creating huntable bobwhite populations in the southeastern United States is largely practiced on private lands. These properties not only support high density bobwhite populations, they also support biodiversity including many declining or endangered species associated with frequently-burned pine savannas. The private land model has proven sustainable over centuries and has recently increased with >20,000 ha of wild bobwhite lands added in Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina since 2000. The NBCI recognizes private lands are critical to restoration of bobwhites but, despite their conservation value, no studies have quantified areas under wild bobwhite management. We mapped 259 properties totaling ~ 345,614 ha with wild bobwhite management principally in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and South Carolina, and are completing mapping in Mississippi, Virginia, and North Carolina. Our survey data found management actions were consistent across these properties including maintaining open pine canopy, reducing hardwoods in upland areas, prescribed fire on areas of appropriate sizes and distribution, year- round supplemental feeding, nest predator management, and conservative harvest rates. Adoption of these management practices are a result of long-term research demonstrating their efficacy. Density of bobwhites on a property was related to landscape composition with lower densities on more fragmented sites. Properties in core areas surrounded by other managed properties often achieved bobwhite densities of 5–8 quail/ha. Bobwhite densities on smaller isolated properties densities were ~ 2.5 quail/ha during fall. Aspects of this successful management model may be useful to other private lands as well as public management areas focused on northern bobwhite.

Fecundity of Wild Northern Bobwhite Hens Under Hatchery Conditions

We describe egg production by 88 pairs of randomly selected, mature, wild-caught northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) hens housed under optimal conditions of food, water, climate, and a 17-hr photoperiod in a hatchery. We collected eggs daily using an 18-day period to differentiate between clutches. Hens continuously laid eggs until ceasing production. We evaluated number of eggs laid by each hen individually and hens collectively including total number, number/clutch, number/day, hatching success, and egg mass. Eighty-six hens produced 5,888 eggs. Number of eggs produced by individual hens ranged from 0 to 172 over ~ 200 days. Mean number of eggs laid/hen/day was 0.86. Clutch size ranged from 0 (n 1⁄4 2) to 12 (n 1⁄4 1). Mean number of eggs/clutch was 8.57. There was a strong correlation between clutch size and number of clutches. Some hens demonstrated continuous production of several large clutches. Hatching success of 5,793 eggs included for analysis was 61.6% (3,571 hatched, 2,222 failed to hatch). Hatched eggs had a greater mean mass compared to those that did not hatch.

A Quantitative PCR Protocol for Detection of Oxyspirura petrowi in Northern Bobwhites (Colinus virginianus).

Oxyspirura petrowi is a parasitic nematode that infects wild birds. This parasite has a broad host range, but has recently been reported in high prevalences from native Galliformes species in the United States. In order to better understand the impact O. petrowi has on wild bird populations, we developed a quantitative PCR protocol to detect infections in wild northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). We used paired fecal and cloacal swab samples from wild caught and experimentally infected northern bobwhites and matching fecal float data from experimentally infected birds to validate our assay. Overall we detected more positive birds from fecal samples than the paired cloacal swabs and there was strong agreement between the qPCR results from fecal samples and from fecal flotation (84%; κ = 0.69 [0.53–0.84 95% CI]). We also detected O. petrowi DNA in ten replicates of samples spiked with one O. petrowi egg. This qPCR assay is an effective assay to detect O. petrowi infections in wild birds. Our results suggest that fecal samples are the most appropriate sample for detecting infections; although, cloacal swabs can be useful for determining if O. petrowi is circulating in a population.

Habitat Selection of Wild Pigs and Northern Bobwhites in Shrub-Dominated Rangeland

Abstract Sus scrofa L. (Wild Pig) are known to eat the eggs of ground-nesting birds, but it is unknown to what extent they have an impact on populations of Colinus virginianus L. (Northern Bobwhite). We combined data from 2 prior studies conducted on a large ranch in South Texas to assess comparative habit use and selection by Wild Pigs and Bobwhites. Both species were distributed throughout the ranch, but their preferred habitats were very different. Bobwhites favored upland habitats, particularly areas with deep, sandy soils, while Wild Pigs favored low-lying habitats with clay soils. We conclude that depredation of Bobwhite nests by these invasive mammals may be restricted by the thermoregulatory requirement for Wild Pigs to stay near riparian areas. The extent of this effect will depend on the availability and spatial arrangement of water and riparian areas on the landscape.

Multiyear Survey of Coccidia, Cryptosporidia, Microsporidia, Histomona, and Hematozoa in Wild Quail in the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma, USA.

We developed nested PCR protocols and performed a multiyear survey on the prevalence of several protozoan parasites in wild northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma (i.e. fecal pellets, bird intestines and blood smears collected between 2010 and 2013). Coccidia, cryptosporidia, and microsporidia were detected in 46.2%, 11.7%, and 44.0% of the samples (n=687), whereas histomona and hematozoa were undetected. Coccidia consisted of one major and two minor Eimeria species. Cryptosporidia were represented by a major unknown Cryptosporidium species and Cryptosporidium baileyi. Detected microsporidia species were highly diverse, in which only 11% were native avian parasites including Encephalitozoon hellem and Encephalitozoon cuniculi, whereas 33% were closely related to species from insects (e.g. Antonospora, Liebermannia, and Sporanauta). This survey suggests that coccidia infections are a significant risk factor in the health of wild quail while cryptosporidia and microsporidia may be much less significant than coccidiosis. In addition, the presence of E.hellem and E.cuniculi (known to cause opportunistic infections in humans) suggests that wild quail could serve as a reservoir for human microsporidian pathogens, and individuals with compromised or weakened immunity should probably take precautions while directly handling wild quail.