Wild Mule Deer Research Articles

Lesions of Mycobacterium avium spp. hominissuis Infection Resembling M. bovis Lesions in a Wild Mule Deer, Canada1.

We used molecular analyses to confirm Mycobacterium avium spp. hominissuis infection in lung granulomas and pyogranulomas in the tracheobronchial lymph node in a wild mule deer in Banff, Canada. These lesions are similar to those found in M. bovis–infected animals, emphasizing the critical need for disease surveillance in wildlife populations.

The use of on‐animal acoustical recording devices for studying animal behavior

Audio recordings made from free-ranging animals can be used to investigate aspects of physiology, behavior, and ecology through acoustic signal processing. On-animal acoustical monitoring applications allow continuous remote data collection, and can serve to address questions across temporal and spatial scales. We report on the design of an inexpensive collar-mounted recording device and present data on the activity budget of wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) derived from these devices applied for a 2-week period. Over 3300 h of acoustical recordings were collected from 10 deer on their winter range in a natural gas extraction field in northwestern Colorado. Analysis of a subset of the data indicated deer spent approximately 33.5% of their time browsing, 20.8% of their time processing food through mastication, and nearly 38.3% of their time digesting through rumination, with marked differences in diel patterning of these activities. Systematic auditory vigilance was a salient activity when masticating, and these data offer options for quantifying wildlife responses to varying listening conditions and predation risk. These results (validated using direct observation) demonstrate that acoustical monitoring is a viable and accurate method for characterizing individual time budgets and behaviors of ungulates, and may provide new insight into the ways external forces affect wildlife behavior.

Polymorphisms at the PRNP Gene Influence Susceptibility to Chronic Wasting Disease in Two Species of Deer (Odocoileus Spp.) in Western Canada

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is increasingly prevalent in multiple wild mule (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) herds in North America. CWD was first found in Canadian wild mule deer in Saskatchewan in 2000 and has since spread into the neighboring province of Alberta. The infectious agent for CWD is a misfolded prion protein encoded by the PRNP gene. Previous studies revealed association between PRNP genotype and susceptibility to CWD in both mule and white-tailed deer in other regions. To investigate this link in Canadian populations, PRNP gene sequence was examined in 166 CWD– and 83 CWD+ mule deer, and 197 CWD– and 30 CWD+ white-tailed deer from Saskatchewan and Alberta. Two variable sites were found in mule deer, and 15 in white-tailed deer. In both species PRNP genotype was associated with CWD status. Mule deer possessing at least one copy of the common allele at codon 20 were less likely to test positive for CWD than expected, given the frequency of this allele in the population. A variant at codon 96 in white-tailed deer was also linked with reduced incidence of CWD. A greater knowledge of the genetic sources of heterogeneity in CWD susceptibility may improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the CWD epidemic in western Canada.

Fence‐Line Contact Between Wild and Farmed Cervids in Colorado: Potential for Disease Transmission

Abstract: Direct and indirect contact between wild and farmed cervids along perimeter fences may play a role in transmission of diseases like chronic wasting disease (CWD), but no studies have quantified such interactions. At 9 high‐fenced commercial elk (Cervus elaphus) farms in Colorado, USA, during October 2003 to January 2005, we used animal‐activated video to estimate rates of fence‐line use by wild cervids, rates of direct contact between farmed and wild cervids, and probability of direct contact when wild cervids were present. We recorded 8‐fold‐more wild elk per unit time than mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) at fence lines. Depending on site, we recorded 0.66 to 46.90 wild elk per 1,000 hours of camera monitoring. We documented 77 interactions between wild and farmed elk involving naso‐oral contact and no contact between wild mule deer and farmed elk. Rate of direct contact ranged from 0.00 to 1.92 direct contacts per 1,000 hours of camera monitoring among sites. Given recorded presence of wild elk, estimated probability of observing direct contact during a 2‐minute video recording ranged from 0.00 to 0.11 among sites. Risk of direct contact was about 3.5 times greater for single woven‐wire fence compared with offset electric fence attached to a single woven‐wire fence. We observed no direct contact through double woven‐wire fences. Because little is currently known about infection rates associated with infection mechanisms, we cannot infer a level of CWD infection risk from our results, but some form of double fencing should reduce potential for direct and indirect transmission of disease into or out of elk farms.

Hunting with the Camera: Nature Photography, Manliness, and Modern Memory, 1890–1930

On January 7, 1892, Forest and Stream – the magazine of “true sportsmen” – featured a photograph of wild mule deer taken by Fred Baker, a hunter from Wyoming. A doe and her two fawns rest peacefully in front of a patch of sagebrush, as the midday sun casts a bright light. “Here, by a piece of good fortune which might not come to a man once in a lifetime,” the editor George Bird Grinnell explained, “Mr. Baker discovered the deer, and creeping up to the edge of the ravine focussed his camera on them without disturbing their siesta.” Grinnell emphasized to readers the accuracy and details portrayed in the image – the large mule-like ears of the deer and the black tips of fur that marked their tails. But he also drew a moral message from this scene of tranquility. “The flesh of the mule deer is excellent eating,” Grinnell wrote, “far better in the estimation of some people than that of the Virginia deer; but we think a man would have to be pretty hungry or quite without soul who would be willing to disturb the charming family group which is shown in our illustration. As we grow older we incline more and more to the opinion that a camera is sometimes a more satisfactory implement to hunt with than a gun.”

Urinary Cortisol, Urea Nitrogen Excretion, and Winter Survival in Mule Deer Fawns

Physiological indices are commonly used to assess the condition of wildlife populations. The underlying assumption when using such indices is that they are associated with survival rates and/or reproductive success. However, such an association has never been demonstrated conclusively in wildlife populations. From 7 December 1987 to 15 April 1988 we monitored survival of 101 wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawns in 2 fenced pastures, and determined levels of cortisol: creatinine and urea nitrogen: creatinine ratios in urine of 14 tame yearling mule deer using the same ranges. The 2 pastures were stocked with deer in November-December 1987 at high (0.66 km 2 ; 41 adults, 50 fawns, 7 tame yearlings; 148 deer/km 2 ) and low (1.69 km 2 ; 29 adults, 51 fawns, 7 tame yearlings; 51 deer/km 2 ) density

Emergency Feeding of Mule Deer during Winter: Tests of a Supplemental Ration

We evaluated the efficacy of feeding a supplemental ration to captive and wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) in Colorado. The supplement was 63% digestible and provided 2.55 kcal/g of metabolizable energy. Ad libitum intake was 28.8 g/kg BW/day. Captive animals adapted to low quality forage diets showed no digestive upsets when abruptly offered the supplemental ration ad libitum. We observed effects of feeding on animal condition and mortality in three populations of wild mule deer. Unfed deer showed the poorest body condition and highest mortality; 53% of the unfed population died during winter. Mortality rates in a population fed 0.9 kg/deer/day averaged 33%; mortality of deer fed ad libitum averaged 24%. We concluded that emergency feeding of a nutritionally adequate ration to mule deer can reduce mortality in populations subject to exceptionally severe winter weather. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 49(4):934-942 Severe winter weather periodically causes high mortality in mule deer populations in the Rocky Mountains. Because such losses are frequently unrelated to population density (Gilbert et al. 1970, Wallmo and Gill 1971, Bartmann and Bowden 1984), they often be ameliorated by harvest management. Habitat improvement and protection of critical wintering areas offer the ultimate solution to this problem (Gilbert et al. 1970, Scotter 1980). However, carrying capacities of traditional winter ranges can vary tremendously due to annual variation in snow depth (Wallmo et al. 1977) and plant production (Hobbs et al. 1982). Consequently, managers must occasionally accept high levels of mortality even on the best managed winter ranges (Crowe and Strickland 1984). This creates an important problem. Inrea ed public demand for mule deer populations d creases the acceptability of high levels of density-independent winter mortality. A potential remedy to this dilemma is feeding deer artificial rations to supplement limited supplies of native forage during unusually harsh winters. In theory, emergency feeding should reduce annual variation in mule deer numbers by mitigating the effects of occasionally severe winter weather. In practice, however, supplemental feeding has usually failed to prevent starvation of deer in the Rocky Mountains (Carhart 1943, 1945; Doman and Rasmussen 1944; Smith 1952; Keiss and Smith 1966). At one extreme, feeding low quality hay caused acute digestive impaction and ulceration (Schoonveld et al. 1974) and limited intake to levels insufficient for maintenance of small bodied ruminants like mule deer (Ammann et al. 1973, Short This content downloaded from 157.55.39.132 on Thu, 15 Sep 2016 06:06:09 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms J. Wildl. Manage. 49(4):1985 EMERGENCY FEEDING OF DEER * Baker and Hobbs 935 et al. 1974). At the other extreme, feeding highenergy concentrates to animals adapted to natural forages caused ruminal acidosis and death (Dean 1973:42-46, Wilson et al. 1975, Wobeser and Runge 1975, Woolfe 1977). These observations led to the widespread belief that wild deer cannot be fed. Initiation of emergency feeding requires that wild deer switch abruptly from natural to supplemental diets. Terminating feeding requires that they switch back. A safe supplemental ration must allow these transitions without causing digestive upsets. Here, we report tests of the efficacy of a supplemental ration for mule deer. We assessed its nutritional value and evaluated its safety when fed to animals adapted to forage diets. We tested the hypothesis that emergency feeding of this ration to mule deer reduced mortality and improved animal condition during an exceptionally severe winter. This research was supported by the Colo. Div. of Wildl. (Game Cash 5060 and Fed. Aid to Wildl. Restoration Proj. 45-01-502-15050). We thank P. H. Neil for assistance in feeding trials, and J. A. Gerrans, A. H. Chappel, B. C. Thompson, and D. J. Freddy for help in the field. R. C. Walsh provided information for economic analysis; J. C. Demander and M. L. Stevens conducted laboratory analysis; D. C. Bowden designed mortality samples; and L. E. Lovett prepared the manuscript. We appreciate reviews of early drafts by J. M. Peek, A. E. Anderson, D. M. Crowe, G. D. Bear, and D. F. Reed.

The ED 50 of Carfentanil for Elk Immobilization with and without the Tranquilizer R51703

We evaluated the efficacy of feeding a supplemental ration to captive and wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) in Colorado. The supplement was 63% digestible and provided 2.55 kcal/g of metabolizable energy. Ad libitum intake was 28.8 g/kg BW/day. Captive animals adapted to low quality forage diets showed no digestive upsets when abruptly offered the supplemental ration ad libitum. We observed effects of feeding on animal condition and mortality in three populations of wild mule deer. Unfed deer showed the poorest body condition and highest mortality; 53% of the unfed population died during winter. Mortality rates in a population fed 0.9 kg/deer/day averaged 33%; mortality of deer fed ad libitum averaged 24%. We concluded that emergency feeding of a nutritionally adequate ration to mule deer can reduce mortality in populations subject to exceptionally severe winter weather. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 49(4):934-942 Severe winter weather periodically causes high mortality in mule deer populations in the Rocky Mountains. Because such losses are frequently unrelated to population density (Gilbert et al. 1970, Wallmo and Gill 1971, Bartmann and Bowden 1984), they often cannot be ameliorated by harvest management. Habitat improvement and protection of critical wintering areas offer the ultimate solution to this problem (Gilbert et al. 1970, Scotter 1980). However, carrying capacities of traditional winter ranges can vary tremendously due to annual variation in snow depth (Wallmo et al. 1977) and plant production (Hobbs et al. 1982). Consequently, managers must occasionally accept high levels of mortality even on the best managed winter ranges (Crowe and Strickland 1984). This creates an important problem. Increased public demand for mule deer populations decreases the acceptability of high levels of density-independent winter mortality. A potential remedy to this dilemma is feeding deer artificial rations to supplement limited supplies of native forage during unusually harsh winters. In theory, emergency feeding should reduce annual variation in mule deer numbers by mitigating the effects of occasionally severe winter weather. In practice, however, supplemental feeding has usually failed to prevent starvation of deer in the Rocky Mountains (Carhart 1943, 1945; Doman and Rasmussen 1944; Smith 1952; Keiss and Smith 1966). At one extreme, feeding low quality hay caused acute digestive impaction and ulceration (Schoonveld et al. 1974) and limited intake to levels insufficient for maintenance of small bodied ruminants like mule deer (Ammann et al. 1973, Short This content downloaded from 157.55.39.179 on Tue, 12 Apr 2016 09:50:15 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Effects of Monoterpenoid Exposure on Ability of Rumen Inocula to Digest a Set of Forages

Effects of Monoterpenoid Exposure on Ability of Rumen Inocula to Digest a Set of Forages

In vitro Digestibility among Accessions of Big Sagebrush by Wild Mule Deer and Its Relationship to Monoterpenoid Content

Results of in vitro digestibility trials indicate that big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is a highly digestible browse for wintering mule deer. Subspecies tridentata (62.lYo digested dry matter) was more highly digested than subspecies vaseyana (53.2% digested dry matter) and subspecies wyomingensis (51.4% digested dry matter). On an accession level, some accessions of big sagebrush were more highly digested than others. The accessional range was from 44.6% digested dry matter to 64.8%. No relationship was found between total monoterpenoids (essential or volatile oils) content and digestibility.

Differential Preference of Wintering Mule Deer for Accessions of Big Sagebrush and for Black Sagebrush

Free-roaming mule deer showed significant differential preference for accessions of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) grown in a uniform garden. Mule deer also selectively preferred certain accessions of black sagebrush (A. nova). The role of monoterpenoids (essential or volatile oils) in determining preference among accessions and taxa of Artemisia-the sagebrushes-and the role of sagebrush as a food of starvation is discussed. Differential preference of mule deer for populations and individual plants of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) has been noted by several workers (Smith 1950; Plummer et al. 1968; Winward 1970; Hanks et al. 1973; Stevens and McArthur 1974; Winward and Tisdale 1977; Willms et al. 1979; and McArthur et al. 1979). Few, however, have quantified their observations. Hanks et al. (1973), Sheehy (1975), and Scholl et al. (1977) did quantify their observed preferential differences. Of these workers, only Sheehy (1975) made statistical comparisons. He found that mule deer significantly preferred some sagebrush taxa over others. Preference of wintering mule deer for accessions of big sagebrush is one of several key characteristics being considered in our selecting and breeding program (Welch and McArthur 1979a). Therefore, we undertook this study to expand our knowledge base concerning mule deer preference for accessions of big sagebrush (A. tridentata) and for black sagebrush (A. nova) grown in a uniform garden. Materials and Methods From a uniform shrub' garden located at the Gordon Creek wildlife management area near Helper, Utah, 10 accessions of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and four accessions of black sagebrush (Artemisia nova) were chosen to determine differential preference by free-roaming, wintering mule deer. The accessions (plant material from a specific site) were transplanted onto the garden as wildlings from various Intermountain areas (Table 1). For each accession of big sagebrush, 10 plants were randomly selected. Plants were approximately the same age (planted 1968-1971). Twenty annual leaders per plant were measured to the nearest centimeter during mid-October 1977 and 1978. The leaders were selected at random over the entire crown of the plants. The 20 measurements per plant were used to arrive at a mean annual leader length (before browsing) for each plant. After the winter, and before spring growth, the plants were remeasured in the same manner as they were in October and a mean annual leader length Authors are research plant physiologist and research geneticist with the U.S. Dep. Agr. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah 84601; and wildlife research biologist with the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah 84601. Manuscript received March 4, 1980. 'The uniform shrub garden at the Gordon Creek wildlife management area near Helper, Utah, is cooperatively maintained by the Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources (W-82-R) and the Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Table 1. Locations of 10 accessions of big sagebrush (A rtemisia tridentata) and four accessions of black sagebrush (Artemisia nova) used to determine differences in preference of wintering wild mule deer. These accessions were grown on a uniform garden near Helper, Utah. Species Subspecies Accessions County and State tridentata vaseYana Hobble Creek Utah, Utah Spanish Valley Grand, Utah Indian Peaks Beaver, Utah Milford Beaver, Utah Monticello San Juan, Utah tridentata tridentata Indianola Sanpete, Utah Loa Wayne, Utah Dove Creek Dolores, Colorado Marysvale Piute, Utah tridentata wv'omingensis Trough Springs Humboldt, Nevada nova Lund Iron, Utah Manti Sanpete, Utah Pioche Lincoln, Nevada Pine Valley Millard, Utah (after browsing) was determined. Percent used was calculated by dividing the mean leader length after browsing by the mean leader length before browsing, and then multiplied by 100. This method of measuring leader length contained a precision error term of 4%. During the first year, we had the occasion to visit the shrub garden before the start of winter (December 12, 1977). Significant browsing of the big sagebrush was noted. We remeasured the big sagebrush in the manner described above so we could determine the amount of big sagebrush eaten before winter's onslaught. For black sagebrush, 10 plants per accession were analyzed by the ocular method (National Academy of Sciences 1962) to estimate deer use. This was done only in the winter of 1978. A completely random-designed analysis of variance was used to detect significant effects due to accessions. Hartley's multiple range test was used to compare accession means (Snedecor and Cochran 1967). A t-test with paired observations was used to compare winters (Snedecor and Cochran 1967).

Birth and First-Day Behavior of Wild Mule Deer Fawns

Birth and First-Day Behavior of Wild Mule Deer Fawns