Wild Harvest Research Articles

Exploring Ganoderma lucidum: morphology, cultivation and market potential.

Ganoderma lucidum, known as the "mushroom of immortality," is a white rot fungus renowned for its medicinal properties, attributed to its bioactive compounds. Although species with similar morphological traits to G. lucidum are found across the globe, precise identification is made possible through DNA barcoding and molecular phylogenetic analysis. Global cultivation and wild harvesting of G. lucidum are both done in response to the growing market needs. Artificial cultivation is typically performed on sawdust, but other woody substrates and the wood log method are also employed. This cultivation leverages the fungus's ecological role in converting industrial and agricultural solid wastes into biomass, thereby producing functional food and potential pharmaceutical sources. The review consolidates research on various aspects of, including cultivation methods (sawdust, agricultural waste, wood logs, and submerged fermentation), and the current global market conditions.

Wild harvesting of Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces spp.) in Kitengué, Republic of the Congo

Wild harvesting of Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces spp.) in Kitengué, Republic of the Congo

Environmental Impact Assessment of a Plant Cell-Based Bio-Manufacturing Process for Producing Plant Natural Product Ingredients

Purpose: This study employed a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology to evaluate the environmental impacts of a novel plant cell-based biomanufacturing process for producing plant natural product ingredients. The primary purpose was to assess the relative sustainability of the process and to provide insights into potential areas of improvement in the biomanufacturing process. Method: The LCA method used an MS Excel (Ver. 2407) -based approach with a cradle-to-gate system boundary covering raw material sourcing (A1), raw material transportation (A2), and product extract manufacturing (A3) stages. Energy use and material inventory data are presented for different unit operations, and environmental impact factors were obtained from the Ecoinvent database. The study included a Material Circularity Index (MCI) calculation to assess the circularity of the biomanufacturing process for the production of saponin emulsifiers that are normally extracted from the woody tissue of the Chilean soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria). Comparative analyses were performed against a wild-harvest approach for plant tannin extraction from spruce (Picea abies) tree bark. Key Results: The environmental impact assessment focused on determining relative Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), Freshwater Eutrophication (FE), Particulate Matter Formation (PMF), and Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). Results indicated that the extract manufacturing stage (A3) contributed significantly to adverse environmental impacts, with varying levels of effects based on the energy source used. Comparative analysis with the wild harvest approach highlights the lower environmental impact of the alternative biomanufacturing process. The biomanufacturing process showed a 23% reduction in GWP, AP, and FE and a 25% reduction in PMF and ODP relative to the wild harvest approach. However, the MCI for the biomanufacturing process was estimated to be 0.186, indicating a low material circularity. Conclusions: The results revealed that the extract manufacturing stage, particularly energy consumption, significantly influences the relative environmental impacts of the alternative production processes. Different energy sources exhibit varying effects, with renewable energy sources showing lower environmental impacts. The Material Circularity Index indicated a low circularity for the biomanufacturing process, suggesting opportunities for improvement, such as incorporating recycled or reused materials. Compared with the tannin extraction process, the plant cell-based biomanufacturing process demonstrated lower environmental impacts, emphasising the importance of sustainable practices and the use of renewable energy sources in future plant natural product sourcing. Recommendations include implementing more sustainable practices, optimising raw material choices, and extending product life spans to enhance circularity and overall environmental benefits.

Knowledge gaps and opportunities for conservation with orchid collectors in Vietnam

AbstractUnsustainable harvesting of orchid species is a critical, global threat to orchid diversity and abundance, fueled by domestic and global demand. However, drivers of demand continue to be under‐explored, despite opportunities for proactive engagement and/or behavior change strategies with and/or directed at orchid collectors. In this study, we surveyed self‐identified Vietnamese orchid collectors, some of whom were also known to engage in wild harvesting of endangered species, to understand sociological dimensions including motivations, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and conservation ethos. We found that knowledge about domestic and international regulations was low, and that orchid collectors were likely to believe that Vietnam has plenty of orchids left in the wild. Orchid collectors were highly willing to share their expertise and collections with international NGOs, and receive advice on propagation of orchid species. Through Bayesian logistic regression, we found no statistically significant influence of demographic attributes on the behavior of harvesting from the wild; however, having access to propagation equipment and supplies increased the likelihood of wild harvest. Accurate knowledge (awareness) is a key first step in the behavior change process. We suggest the implementation of awareness‐raising campaigns targeted at Vietnamese orchid collectors, which communicate domestic and international restrictions about orchid harvest and trade, as well as the known status of orchid species in the wild. Additionally, we suggest that an opportunity exists to recruit Vietnamese orchid collectors into a formal network for knowledge‐sharing and the co‐creation of sustainable guidelines around keeping and propagating orchids.Abstract in Vietnamese is available with online material.

Longline and mesocosm cultivation of serrated wrack Fucus serratus (Phaeophyceae)

ABSTRACT Seaweed aquaculture is becoming increasingly important as the global seaweed market is set to exceed £20 billion by 2030, leaving natural populations at risk of overexploitation. Fucoids, such as Fucus serratus, are intertidal seaweeds hand-harvested for their use in agricultural, pharmaceutical, and biomedical industries. Despite many aspects of the biology of fucoids being well researched, there have been very few studies on their aquaculture. In this study, we grew F. serratus biomass from gamete life stages in the Queen’s University Marine Laboratory for 8 months and monitored their growth, amino acid and phenolic contents in a subtidal field trial. Gametes of F. serratus were successfully fertilized in vitro and attached to substrata: Tiles (mesocosm) and Dyneema Twine (subtidal). The growth of F. serratus on each substrate was monitored for 6 months in the laboratory facility with juveniles reaching 2–4 mm in length. The juveniles on twine were then deployed at the Strangford Lough test site and growth was compared against the juveniles on tiles after an additional two months. Prior to field deployment, individuals grown on tiles were significantly longer (~17%) than those on twine growing to ~3 cm, however, after the two-month deployment, the twine thalli grew significantly longer than those on the tiles (~33%) reaching ~6 cm in length. Subtidal F. serratus grown on twine had significantly higher amino acid content, whereas the phenolic content was significantly lower (~62 mg PGE g−1) than seaweed grown on the tiles (~128 mgPGE g−1). Growing F. serratus successfully in subtidal areas is highly important for providing sustainably sourced biomass to reduce reliance on wild harvesting. Further, cultivating in the subtidal zone will help to avoid competition for space from other aquaculture industries operating in the intertidal zone.

Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture: Future Outlook and Options

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, with an environmentally and socially responsible approach, and provide healthy food. It is developing rapidly and is practised in more than 120 countries. In 2022-23, the total area under the organic certification process (registered under the National Programme for Organic Production) is 10.17 million ha. This includes 5.39 million ha of cultivable area and another 4.8 million hectares for wild harvest collection. Madhya Pradesh has covered the most significant area under organic certification. In contrast, India produced around 2.9 million MT of certified organic products, which include all varieties of food products, namely Oil Seeds, fibre, Sugar cane, Cereals and millets, Cotton, Pulses, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Tea, Coffee, Fruits, Spices, Dry Fruits, Vegetables, Processed foods etc. The production is not limited to the edible sector; it produces organic cotton fiber, functional food products, etc. Among different states, Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer. In terms of exports, the total value was 0.31 million Mt. The organic food export realisation was around Rs. 5525.18 Crore (708.33 million USD). Products are exported to the USA, European Union, Canada, Great Britain, Switzerland, Turkey, Australia, Ecuador, the Korean Republic, Vietnam, Japan, etc. The objectives of organic farming ensure that food production has high nutritional value in adequate quantities and preserves and enhances the long-term fertility of soils.

Development and validation of a 66K SNP array for the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria)

BackgroundThe hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria), a marine bivalve distributed along the U.S. eastern seaboard, supports a significant shellfish industry. Overharvest in the 1970s and 1980s led to a reduction in landings. While the transition of industry from wild harvest to aquaculture since that time has enhanced production, it has also exacerbated challenges such as disease outbreaks. In this study, we developed and validated a 66K SNP array designed to advance genetic studies and improve breeding programs in the hard clam, focusing particularly on the development of markers that could be useful in understanding disease resistance and environmental adaptability.ResultsWhole-genome resequencing of 84 individual clam samples and 277 pooled clam libraries yielded over 305 million SNPs, which were filtered down to a set of 370,456 SNPs that were used as input for the design of a 66K SNP array. This medium-density array features 66,543 probes targeting coding and non-coding regions, including 70 mitochondrial SNPs, to capture the extensive genetic diversity within the species. The SNPs were distributed evenly throughout the clam genome, with an average interval of 25,641 bp between SNPs. The array incorporates markers for detecting the clam pathogen Mucochytrium quahogii (formerly QPX), enhancing its utility in disease management. Performance evaluation on 1,904 samples demonstrated a 72.7% pass rate with stringent quality control. Concordance testing affirmed the array's repeatability, with an average agreement of allele calls of 99.64% across multiple tissue types, highlighting its reliability. The tissue-specific analysis demonstrated that some tissue types yield better genotyping results than others. Importantly, the array, including its embedded mitochondrial markers, effectively elucidated complex genetic relationships across different clam groups, both wild populations and aquacultured stocks, showcasing its utility for detailed population genetics studies.ConclusionsThe 66K SNP array is a powerful and robust genotyping tool that offers unprecedented insights into the species’ genomic architecture and population dynamics and that can greatly facilitate hard clam selective breeding. It represents an important resource that has the potential to transform clam aquaculture, thereby promoting industry sustainability and ecological and economic resilience.

A Study on The Relationship Between Organic Agriculture and Agricultural Employment in Türkiye

Organic agriculture is a sustainable agricultural system with different principles that is carried out within the scope of certain rules. Due to the substitution of organic inputs with chemical inputs, getting the products ready for sale, weed control, and similar operations by hand, enterprises engaged in organic farming require a larger labor force. All these jobs increase employment opportunities in rural areas and allow small family businesses to continue production. In this study, it has been tried to reveal the relationship between organic agriculture and agricultural employment with the help of an econometric model and to determine the effect of organic agriculture on employment. The study analyzed a 17-year time series of data spanning from 2004 to 2021 to identify the factors influencing agricultural employment, taking into account various aspects of organic agriculture, including the number of organic agricultural products, the count of farmers engaged in organic agriculture, the area dedicated to organic agricultural production, the organic wild collection area, the total area allocated for organic agricultural production, the quantity of organic agricultural production, the number of entrepreneurs involved in organic agriculture, the unit price of subsidy for organic agriculture, and the total amount of subsidy provided to organic agriculture. Based on the results of the regression analysis, it was determined that the number of organic products does not have a significant effect on agricultural employment. In addition, it was found that the wild harvesting area is positively significant for agricultural employment and that the total production area of organic agriculture and the amount of subsidy are negatively significant. The results of the research reveal that a 1% increase in the wild harvesting area related to organic agriculture would lead to an increase of more than 0.28% in the agricultural employment rate, while a 1% increase in the total production area and the amount of subsidy would lead to a decrease of 0.40% and 0.44% in the agricultural employment rate, respectively.

A Comparison between the Production of Edible Macroalgae Worldwide and in the Mediterranean Sea

Macroalgae are beneficial for consumers and producers due to their high productivity, their chemical composition and their efficient cultivation without additional feed. Asia dominates global macroalgae production, while European production is still marginal and mainly based on wild harvesting in the North Atlantic. The European Commission has launched initiatives to promote the sustainable production, safe consumption and innovative use of macroalgae products in European regional seas, including the Mediterranean Sea. A variety of coastal and seabed types and a wide range of environmental conditions make the Mediterranean a hotspot of marine biodiversity while providing good conditions for the cultivation of macroalgae. The aim of this paper is to compare the global macroalgae production and macroalgae production in the Mediterranean Sea, focussing on the cultivation of edible macroalgae. The paper also discusses the limitations and possibilities of macroalgae production in the region. Macroalgae production is one of the most promising sectors of the blue economy in the Mediterranean. The production of edible macroalgae suitable for human consumption has great potential, considering future population growth and related food security and health issues, as well as the additional ecosystem benefits of macroalgae production.

Seaweed as a Safe Nutraceutical Food: How to Increase Human Welfare?

Seaweeds have been utilized for millennia in Asian countries, although they have only more recently become popular in Western society. They began to be used in ancient times because of their long-term properties and, nowadays, seaweeds are being targeted as a potential tool to combat climate change. There are not many laws governing seaweeds because they have just lately been utilized as food. However, guidelines are being developed to regulate their manufacture and use. Because of seaweed’s tendency to accumulate components, whether helpful or poisonous, limited doses of certain substances have been established to prevent consumer overdosage. Aside from chemical safety, microbiological safety is important for people, and preventing any pathogen from spreading and infecting seaweeds is critical. As a result, systems and ways to safeguard consumers must be developed. Because various seaweed species have varied compositions, certain seaweeds may be safer nutraceuticals than others. To ensure the safety of seaweed-based food items, the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) system needs to be used. The majority of seaweeds consumed come from aquaculture; however, others come from wild harvesting. To ensure the success of the cultures, the waters must be tested for chemicals and biological risks, as well as for the pH, salinity, and temperature. Seaweeds have enormous promise in many industries, but in the food industry, they are beginning to play a major role, and seizing the chances to produce innovative, safe, and sustainable food sources is strongly advised. This critical review investigates the real potential of seaweed as a human food source and as a nutraceutical solution. This review also focuses on the usage of seaweed as a food product and the procedures required to prepare it. In addition, it compiles information on the applicable legislation and regulations, and it addresses the lengthy road that has to be traveled to increase human well-being by employing a new food source in a controlled manner while simultaneously reducing the human population’s health problems.

Development of an artificial propagation and breeding method for the beehorn snail (Clithon diadema)

Beehorn snail (Clithon diadema), known for its vibrant colors, is threatened with extinction due to excessive field collection. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of different diets and salinity (0‰–35‰) on the gonadal development, capsule productivity, embryonic development, and larval survival and growth of C. diadema. Adult snails (shell length: 9.09 ± 0.87 mm) were fed diatoms, including pennate marine diatom (Nitzschia grossestriata), boat-shaped diatom algae (Navicula sp.) and Cylindrotheca sp., along with giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) commercial feed, sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca), or Cladophora fascicularis, while snail larvae (shell length: 154.85 ± 6.03 μm) were fed Isochrysis galbana or Chaetoceros muelleri. The diatom group outperformed commercial feed and U. lactuca groups. The highest capsule productivity, yielding 79–82 capsules in 4 weeks, occurred at 15‰-20‰ salinity for diatom-fed adults. Embryos thrived at 0‰ but didn't hatch; hatching required salinities above 0‰, highlighting saline necessity. In addition, acute salinity changes (0‰ to 30‰) can deform embryo. Embryonic development at 15‰–20‰ salinity lasted 13.56–14.33 days with 100% larval hatching. However, larvae hatched at >20‰ salinity exhibit improved the percentage of survival without feeding (longer median lethal times). I. galbana-fed larvae survived 68 days with a 75% rate, outlasting C. muelleri-fed larvae which perished within 28 days. I. galbana-fed larvae, raised for 68 days at 25‰ salinity, showed 100% survival, 44.44% metamorphosis, and a 3.1 times growth increase. Metamorphosis rates were highest at 25‰ salinity with I. galbana, exceeding the 20‰ group by 3.2 times. Mucus of C. diadema boosts larval metamorphosis to 50.00%, 9 times higher than without inducers. Based on previous results, we developed an artificial propagation and breeding method for C. diadema. Artificially propagating C. diadema in large quantities could reduce the need for wild harvesting, thereby mitigating negative ecological impacts from excessive collection.

Assessment of the USDA Biomass Harvest Trap (USDA-BHT) device as an insect harvest and mosquito surveillance tool.

Insects are a promising source of high-quality protein, and the insect farming industry will lead to higher sustainability when it overcomes scaling up, cost effectiveness, and automation. In contrast to insect farming (raising and breeding insects as livestock), wild insect harvesting (collecting agricultural insect pests), may constitute a simple sustainable animal protein supplementation strategy. For wild harvest to be successful sufficient insect biomass needs to be collected while simultaneously avoiding the collection of nontarget insects. We assessed the performance of the USDA Biomass Harvest Trap (USDA-BHT) device to collect flying insect biomass and as a mosquito surveillance tool. The USDA-BHT device was compared to other suction traps commonly used for mosquito surveillance (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, Encephalitis virus surveillance traps, and Biogents Sentinel traps). The insect biomass harvested in the USDA-BHT was statistically higher than the one harvested in the other traps, however the mosquito collections between traps were not statistically significantly different. The USDA-BHT collected some beneficial insects, although it was observed that their collection was minimized at night. These findings coupled with the fact that sorting time to separate the mosquitoes from the other collected insects was significantly longer for the USDA-BHT, indicate that the use of this device for insect biomass collection conflicts with its use as an efficient mosquito surveillance tool. Nevertheless, the device efficiently collected insect biomass, and thus can be used to generate an alternative protein source for animal feed.

Harnessing Nature's Pharmacy: Biotechnology Advances in Medicinal Plant Research

The integration of biotechnology into medicinal plant research has revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry, offering unprecedented opportunities for the development of novel therapeutics and healthcare solutions. By tapping into the vast biochemical diversity of plants, scientists have unlocked a treasure trove of potential drug candidates, many of which have been used in traditional medicine for centuries. Biotechnological tools such as genetic engineering, tissue culture, metabolomics, and bioinformatics have enabled the precise manipulation and optimization of plant-derived compounds, leading to the production of high-value pharmaceuticals with enhanced efficacy and safety profiles. Moreover, biotechnology facilitates sustainable practices by enabling the cultivation of medicinal plants under controlled conditions, reducing reliance on wild harvesting and alleviating pressure on endangered species. As our understanding of plant biology continues to deepen, the synergy between biotechnology and medicinal plant research holds tremendous promise for addressing global health challenges and improving patient outcomes.

Analysis of 20 years of turtle exports from theUSreveals mixed effects ofCITESand a need for better monitoring

AbstractThe Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) is the primary mechanism for controlling international wildlife trade and preventing overexploitation, but measuring its efficacy is difficult, which complicates management efforts. We examined the effects of CITES listings on the trade of freshwater turtles from the US and compared spatiotemporal trends and dynamics of trade across 16 genera using 20 years of export data, triangulated with mixed qualitative data. For each CITES‐listed genus, we analyzed the average changes, immediate changes, and changes in trends of export volumes and spatial diversity of trade. Boom‐and‐bust trends of exports for different taxa were driven by several factors, including CITES listings, but CITES had mixed effects on export volumes for both Appendix II and III species while the diversity of spatial trade networks consistently declined for CITES and non‐CITES listed genera. These results point to differences in demand and species' availability from captive breeders, farms, or wild harvest which are important to consider in future listing decisions. However, a lack of reliable data on the source of turtles limited our ability to understand these drivers as well as the efficacy of CITES listings in preventing overexploitation.

Testing and Expanding the Concept of Traditional and Contemporary Localism in Rural Local Food Systems with Ozark Wild Harvesters☆

AbstractWhile research shows the potential benefits of local food systems to improve community economy and quality of life, there is a critique that these studies overlook how informal, non‐market food access practices contribute to local food systems, especially in rural places. McEntee promoted the concepts of traditional and contemporary localism in his work with rural food systems, arguing that the motivations of participants define the categories. Using narrative research with wild harvesters in the Ozark Highlands, we propose that while McEntee's definitions are useful for expanding the conversation about why people may choose local food or not, more efforts should focus on valuing and welcoming the broader intersection of priorities and strategies that people use to engage in local food systems in their communities. Promoting a wider portfolio of local food access strategies is important to communicate that there are a variety of ways to participate in localized food systems, some in regular market transactions and some in informal non‐market ways, and that all are potentially valuable in building sustainable food systems in rural areas.

Modelling the sustainable harvest of wild populations for the conservation of a threatened amphibian

AbstractHarvesting wild populations is increasingly used to support conservation initiatives, including translocations, captive assurance colonies, and breeding programs. Best‐practice guidelines recommend that population viability analyses should be developed to assess the potential impact of harvest on source populations, allowing quantification of the risk incurred by the conservation programme. We developed a stochastic population model to assess the relative impact of harvesting southern bell frogs (Litoria raniformis) from three well‐studied populations. We compared the probability of local extinction when harvesting from three life stages (spawn, tadpoles, and adults) and at 21 harvest proportions (from 0 to 1, in 0.05 increments). Source populations with an estimated average of 100 adult frogs and with three or fewer breeding opportunities every 5 years showed increased risk of local extinction and lower minimum adult populations from all harvest strategies. Sources with an estimated average population >600 adult frogs and breeding opportunities in at least eight out of every 10 years were more resilient to harvest. For these populations, harvesting up to 25% of spawning masses or late‐stage tadpoles had a negligible impact on the probability of local extinction and caused a slight decrease in the minimum adult population. Harvesting adults impacted source populations more strongly than harvesting spawn or tadpoles. Our model highlights the importance of frequent breeding opportunities to offset the effects of harvesting L. raniformis. Populations sustained by environmental water delivery should be prioritized for the two consecutive breeding seasons following harvest in the absence of natural wetland inundation. We demonstrate a tractable approach to assess and compare the relative risk of wild harvest for threatened amphibians, with implications for the conservation of our focal species, L. raniformis. We encourage conservation practitioners to implement population viability analyses prior to wild harvest, whenever sufficient demographic information is available to build the requisite models.

Commercial Cultivation of Edible Halophytes: The Issue of Oxalates and Potential Mitigation Options

Saline agriculture, including the commercial cultivation of edible halophytes, is expanding rapidly to address the increase in salinised soil due to natural and man-made causes, the decline in availability of fresh water, the increased use of poor-quality water, and increasing food insecurity. Halophytes, as food crops, offer an innovative new opportunity in agriculture, many being highly nutritious and containing bioactive compounds. However, the commercial production of edible halophytes to meet emerging consumer demands faces several challenges. This review examines the market potential for the expansion of edible halophyte crops and the challenges of consumer acceptance and production capacity beyond wild harvest. In addition to beneficial compounds, halophytes are known to contain several anti-nutrient compounds, which can have negative health consequences. In edible halophytes, oxalates are of particular concern. However, research has shown that there are ways to mitigate the accumulation of oxalate through processing, agronomic practice, and genetic engineering. These approaches are presented as potential strategies that can be used in commercial farming systems to reduce the levels of this compound.

Using an ecosystem service model to inform restoration planning: A spatially explicit oyster filtration model for Pensacola Bay, Florida.

The development of science-based restoration goals that reflect the primary motivation of stakeholders is a key factor leading to large-scale, long-term restoration successes. The ability to predict the potential ecosystem service delivery from restoration can inform the setting of appropriate goals and facilitate the strategic planning of restoration activities. While recovery of the ecosystem services provided by oyster reefs is a regularly cited reason for undertaking restoration, few examples exist where large-scale oyster habitat restoration plans have been informed using ecosystem service functions. Such an approach is currently being implemented in the Pensacola Bay System, Florida, where a broad coalition of partners and community stakeholders are utilizing a watershed approach to restoring oysters with the aim of restoring oysters for multiple objectives including habitat, ecosystem services, and wild harvest and aquaculture. Through the process of developing a habitat management plan, water filtration was identified as a key ecosystem service by the stakeholders. To support restoration planning we derived a spatially explicit estimate of water filtration services provided by the eastern oyster in the Pensacola Bay system by linking an oyster habitat suitability map to a hydrodynamic-oyster filtration model. This spatially explicit model allowed us to identify the areas where restored oyster reefs have the potential to provide the greatest increase in filtration service as well as provide spatially explicit estimates of the potential filtration provided by oyster habitat restored. Such information is useful in restoration planning and management and for stakeholder engagement, outreach, and education programs.

A point-in-time inventory of chikanda orchids within a wild harvesting wetland area in Mwinilunga, Zambia: implications for conservation

Despite continued wild harvesting, there is limited data that provides estimates on the availability of African edible orchids as a resource, and that identifies the ecological drivers of their dynamics. This study was designed to investigate the relationship between distance from surface water and the diversity, frequency, and population density of chikanda orchids in a harvesting wetland in Mwinilunga, Zambia. Vegetation sampling was conducted using an interrupted belt transect design. Eight 50 m transects were systematically placed and positioned perpendicular (90o) to a stream within three separate orchid communities. Individual plant count was recorded within the 0–10 m, 10–20 m, 20–30 m, 30–40 m, and 40–50 m distance zones. Results showed a statistically significant decrease in the Shannon’s Diversity Index between the distance zones in all three communities (p < 0.05). Mean ranks for orchid taxa frequency and density across the distance zones were significantly different for communities 1 and 2 but not 3 and communities 1 and 3 but not 2, respectively. However, there was a medium to large effect size for distance on frequency and a small to large effect size for distance on density in all three communities. These results suggest that distance from surface water influences the frequency and density of orchid taxa occurring in wetland ecosystems. This implies that for conservation purposes, it may be important to focus on areas close to water when establishing orchid sites for the species investigated in this study.

Hundreds of millions of people in the tropics need both wild harvests and other forms of economic development for their well-being

Hundreds of millions of people in the tropics need both wild harvests and other forms of economic development for their well-being