Whitman County Research Articles

Simulation of Long-Term Water Erosion in Rainfed Croplands of Eastern Washington

Highlights Water erosion in the inland Pacific Northwest was modeled with WEPP for the past (1940–1982) and present (1983–2020). Water erosion decreased from past to present in the study watersheds. Major factors are increased adoption of conservation practices and decrease in large precipitation events. Abstract. Water erosion is an ongoing problem in eastern Washington due to its hilly terrain, highly erodible silt loam soils, rain on thawing soil, and the prevalence of conventional tillage. The region is characterized by a Mediterranean-type climate with warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Three distinct precipitation zones, with annual totals low (<380 mm), intermediate (380–460 mm), and high (>460 mm), dictate the area’s crop rotations. A unique 43-year (1940–1982) dataset of winter erosion measured on multiple agricultural fields in Whitman County, eastern Washington, by Verle Kaiser, a USDA Soil Conservation Service agronomist, showed annual erosion rates averaging 53.8 Mg ha-1, far exceeding the current Natural Resources Conservation Service tolerable limit of 11 Mg ha-1 yr–1 for the soils in the area. Kaiser’s field data allowed us to compare the historical field-measured erosion rates with those simulated by the WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) model. Anthropogenic factors, such as tillage and crop rotation, change with time. Conservation tillage, including reduced- and no-till, has been increasingly adopted in eastern Washington since the mid-1980s. The specific objectives of this study were to (1) apply the WEPP model to simulate soil erosion in eastern Washington and evaluate the interactive effects of climate and management, in addition to topography and soil, on water erosion in the study area, and (2) compare the simulation results with Kaiser’s historical field dataset and elucidate the long-term soil erosion trend. The WEPPcloud interface was used to delineate a watershed within each precipitation zone of the study area. Climate inputs were divided into two periods: the past (1939–1982) and the present (1983–2020). Erosion has noticeably decreased from the past to the present, with WEPP simulated annual erosion averaging 13.5, 34.5, and 52.6 Mg ha-1 for the past, and 9.5, 14.1, and 15.5 Mg ha-1 for the present, in the selected watersheds in the low-, intermediate-, and high-precipitation zones, respectively. The decreasing trend was primarily due to the increased adoption of conservation tillage and crop rotation, as well as a decrease in the number of high-intensity precipitation events in the present climate. Keywords: Inland Pacific Northwest, Soil erosion by water, Temporal trend, WEPP.

Spatial and agronomic assessment of water erosion on inland Pacific Northwest cereal grain cropland

The inland Pacific Northwest (PNW) is characterized by high erosion rates attributed to hilly topography, highly erodible silt loam soils, wet winter seasons with frequent freeze-thaw events, and widespread use of conventional tillage practices. Historically, annual water erosion from cropland in the region’s Palouse River basin averaged 20.6 t ha^-1, and more recent rates are 10, 13, and 11 t ha^-1 for the low (<380 mm y^-1), intermediate (380 to 460 mm y^-1), and high (>460 mm y^-1) precipitation zones. Identifying source areas for targeted, effective management requires understanding the factors affecting water erosion, especially how tillage practices and crop rotation interact in various topographic, soil, and climatic settings. The objectives of this study were to (1) understand how hillslope hydrological and water erosion processes are influenced by key environmental factors (soil, climate, and topography) and management practices (tillage and crop rotation), and (2) assess the spatial distribution of soil erosion at the county level and by precipitation zone over the last 30 years. We compiled various combinations of soil, climate, topography, tillage, and crop rotation, and simulated these combinations county by county with the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model. Simulated average annual erosion rates were lowest in the low-precipitation zone and highest in the intermediate-precipitation zone, exceeding the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service tolerable limit (11 t ha^-1) in many cases. Temporally, high precipitation events and fallow periods in the rotation greatly increase erosion. Average annual erosion rates in Whitman County are 13.6, 19.0, and 15.4 t ha^-1 in the three precipitation zones: low (<380 mm y^-1), intermediate (380 to 460 mm y^-1), and high (>460 mm y^-1), respectively. The intermediate-precipitation zone produced a total annual erosion of 4.2 × 10⁶ t, despite having the smallest area. Columbia County has the highest erosion rate with 23.7 t ha^-1 y^-1. Geospatial visualizations of the simulation results reveal critical source areas (“hotspots”) where estimated erosion rates are more than five times the average rates, providing crucial information for, and advancing our understanding of, targeting management and increasing efficiency of conservation practices.

Distribution of Cereal Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera avenae and H. filipjevi) in Eastern Washington State.

Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN; Heterodera avenae and H. filipjevi), cause substantial worldwide yield loss in small grain cereals such as wheat, barley, and oat. H. avenae was first detected in the United States in western Oregon in 1974 and had spread to northeast Oregon by the mid-1980s. Although H. avenae was detected in eastern Washington in 1984, extensive infestations were not recognized until 2010. H. filipjevi, first detected in Oregon in 2008, was found in eastern Washington in 2014. To gain more information about the distribution of these two species, an extensive survey was undertaken in eastern Washington, and methods were developed to distinguish species using DNA sequencing of single cysts. In this study, we surveyed 356 wheat and barley fields in eastern Washington from 2007 to 2017. CCN from the infested locations were identified to species level by sequencing the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and/or 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. The sequences were compared in the GenBank database in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) to identify species. The results show that H. filipjevi is primarily confined to southern Whitman County, WA; and H. avenae has a wider distribution across the higher precipitation annual cropping area of eastern Whitman County. Knowledge of species identification is critical for deployment of host resistance as an effective means of management, since resistance genes for one species of CCN may not be effective against the other.

Defining the Palouse: Using Overlap Analysis to Delineate an Informal Region

Defining the Palouse:Using Overlap Analysis to Delineate an Informal Region Forrest Bowlick (bio), Koehler Andermatt, Cathy Besmar, Josh Erbe, Robert Lopez III, Joe White, Daniel W. Goldberg, and Katherine M. Carroll The Palouse is a unique region of loessal hills and astoundingly productive agriculture. Located generally in the inland Pacific Northwest, the Palouse lacks a rigid definition, and varying fields define the Palouse with widely different limits and boundaries. We provide a method using overlap analysis in a geographic information system (GIS) analyzing the varying regional definitions to determine what portions show the greatest overlap, or agreement, within the disparate fields. We determine that a “core” Palouse is easily apparent, though the “border” or “fringe” of the Palouse is much wider and uncertain. Introduction The Palouse is an area of high-yield agriculture in the inland Pacific Northwest, composed of fertile loess in east-central Washington (Treasher 1925). Or, it is a rolling topography of high-relief hills located in Whitman County, Washington, and Latah County, Idaho (Kirkham et. al. 1931). It could be defined as an area of fragmented prairie remnants (Looney and Eigenbrode 2012), or described while considering varying linear topographic structures across Washington, Idaho, and Oregon (Lewis 1960). Suffice it to say, the Palouse (or any region) exists within a number of different definitions. Overall, the Palouse “area” lacks rigid definition, leading to confusing and [End Page 40] erratic labels of “regions” that are defined as the Palouse. Despite its agricultural importance, even U.S. government documents inconsistently define the Palouse either as “the region of loess rolling hills with elevations up to 900 m (3,000 ft.) and spanning 46–48°N latitude” or “eastern Washington, northern Idaho and northwestern Montana” (Muehlbauer et al. 2002 (Web), Cash et al. 1996 p. D-14). Discipline-specific definitions tend to be more precise. Early definitions focused on the soil composition of the fertile loess in east-central Washington (Treasher 1925). Other definitions weigh geomorphology with greater importance, describing the Palouse by its high-relief hill topography located within the constructed borders of Whitman County, Washington, and Latah County, Idaho (Kirkham et. al. 1931). Analyzing these varying definitions requires consideration of multiple components of each definition. These components include the various quantitative and qualitative factors present to determine what shared qualities exist within the varying constructs of the Palouse. The spatial analysis capabilities within a geographic information system can analyze these components. This project investigates these regional definitions using spatial analysis within GIS. Background Disparate fields consider the Palouse through different analytical lenses as a region. Understanding the varied definitions of the Palouse requires a diverse review of literature to discover these considerations. We identify the fields of soil science, geomorphology, ecology, and agricultural science as fields with unique and variant Palouse definitions. These definitions vary subtly and widely, and consider the “Palouse” through different frameworks and under different constructs. The first section of this background considers these varying approaches to a definition of the Palouse. The second component of this background describes existent methods for regional analysis within a GIS framework. While the region delineated here already contains multiple definitions, spatial analysis within a GIS can assist in deriving a regional construct from provided data. Cases of this regional construction are relevant to the Palouse example as specific quantitative definitions apply toward a general Palouse construct. Understanding previous methods for regional construction will guide this project’s analysis goals. The definition of any “region” will depend on scientific interests within the region, the specialization of the investigator, and the scale of investigation [End Page 41] (Omernik 1987). This variation is evident within the definitions of the Palouse. The Palouse The Palouse is surprisingly productive agriculturally despite its small area (Duffin 2005). The soil of the Palouse, deep fertile loess from glacial outflow deposited in large dunes by winds during the last glacial maximum, fuels the heavy agriculture while moderate climate and access to the Columbia River for trade create an appealing economic advantage (Duffin 2005). While the Palouse historically contained prairies, scattered remnants are all that remain of the natural bunchgrass prairie ecosystem of the Palouse since settlement and agricultural growth in the late 1800s...

Survey of macromoths (Insecta: Lepidoptera) of a Palouse prairie remnant site in Eastern Washington State

In its broadest sense, The Palouse or Palouse prairie is an ecoregion consisting primarily of native grasses, shrubs, and forbs that originally covered over 16,000 km2 of central Idaho, southeastern Washington, and northeastern Oregon. It is estimated that only 1–6% of this habitat remains with much of it having been converted to agriculture. The Kramer Palouse Natural Area is a relatively undisturbed, 11.7-ha remnant of Palouse prairie situated in Whitman County, Washington. During 2004–05 we conducted a light-trapping and hand-netting survey of a set of families of moths, collectively referred to as macromoths, on the Kramer site. The purpose of this study was to document the biological diversity of moths occurring on the site. This paper reports on just over 5,100 specimens and 150 species in 7 families: Cossidae (usually considered a micromoth — one species), Thyatiridae (one species) Lasiocampidae (one species), Notodontidae (three species), Sphingidae (five species), Erebidae (14 species), and Noctuidae (125 species). We collected no Nolidae or Euteliidae and, although Geometridae are considered macromoths, they are not discussed in this paper. Seasonal and subjective abundance information is presented for all species. Although no species of strict conservation concern were collected, our study indicates that remaining areas of Palouse prairie are able to support a significant species diversity of macromoths, which are otherwise uncommon in surrounding areas, and probably represent an ancestral fauna.

The economic value of biochar in crop production and carbon sequestration

This paper estimates the economic value of biochar application on agricultural cropland for carbon sequestration and its soil amendment properties. In particular, we consider the carbon emissions avoided when biochar is applied to agricultural soil, instead of agricultural lime, the amount of carbon sequestered, and the value of carbon offsets, assuming there is an established carbon trading mechanism for biochar soil application. We use winter wheat production in Eastern Whitman County, Washington as a case study, and consider different carbon offset price scenarios and different prices of biochar to estimate a farm profit. Our findings suggest that it may be profitable to apply biochar as a soil amendment under some conditions if the biochar market price is low enough and/or a carbon offset market exists.

Resistance of a Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca serriola) Biotype to 2,4-D

Dose-response experiments were conducted on a biotype of prickly lettuce collected from Whitman County, WA, to determine the level of resistance to 2,4-D. Initially, progeny of prickly lettuce that survived two applications of glyphosate and 2,4-D in mixture were collected to determine if antagonism of the 2,4-D or glyphosate was occurring. Prickly lettuce survival was determined to not be due to antagonism of 2,4-D or glyphosate when the two herbicides were applied in mixture. The doses required to reduce growth 50% (GR50) for resistant and susceptible field-collected prickly lettuce were 150 and 6 g ae/ha 2,4-D, respectively, indicating the resistant biotype was 25 times more resistant to 2,4-D than the susceptible biotype. The resistant biotype expressed injury but produced regrowth following application. A dose of 2,4-D at 220 g/ha was required to reduce regrowth frequency 50% (FR50) for resistant field-collected prickly lettuce. Regrowth was also observed with the susceptible biotype, although the FR50 was much lower (10 g/ha), resulting in an R/S ratio of 22 based on the respective FR50 values. A rate of 4,300 g/ha 2,4-D (10 times the maximum labeled rate in wheat) was required to reduce the regrowth frequency in the resistant biotype to zero.

First Report of Powdery Mildew of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Caused by Leveillula taurica in Washington State

In Oct. 2007, powdery mildew was found in chickpea fields in an experimental farm near Pullman, Whitman County, Washington. Although disease signs were observed on all chickpea cultivars in the fields, high incidence was seen only on cvs. Dwelley and Spanish White. To our knowledge this is the first record of powdery mildew caused by Leveillula taurica on chickpea in WA. The pathogen has also been reported from chickpea in California and elsewhere, e.g., Ethiopia, India, Iran, Morocco, Pakistan, Sudan, Turkey, and the former USSR. Accepted for publication 4 May 2008. Published 2 July 2008.

A Record of the Horsehair WormNeochordodes occidentalis(Nematomorpha) in the State of Washington

ABSTRACT The horsehair worm Neochordodes occidentalis (Montgomery) is reported from Whitman County, Washington. This is the first record of the phylum Nematomorpha in the state of Washington.

OWNBEY'S TRAGOPOGONS: 40 YEARS LATER

Two of the classic examples of recent allopolyploid speciation are Tragopogon mirus and T. miscellus. Previous studies have documented that both allotetraploids originated within the past 50–60 years; the diploid parents of T. minis are T. dubius and T. porrifolius; those of T. miscellus are T. dubius and T. pratensis. It has now been 40 years since these allotetraploids were first described by Ownbey in 1950. To assess whether population size (the absolute number of plants) and population number of these species have changed during the past 40 years, we determined their distribution and numbers in the Palouse region of eastern Washington and northern Idaho in the spring of 1990. We visited 90 localities, 60 in Washington and 30 in Idaho. Tragopogon minis is found in nine locations, with eight of these sites located in eastern Whitman County, Washington. Tragopogon miscellus is much more widespread, occurring in 38 of 90 locations. The latter species is now one of the most common weeds in the vicinity of Spokane, Washington. Comparison of the current distributions of these species with historical records indicates that both allotetraploids, especially T. miscellus, have increased substantially in both geographic range and numbers. These Tragopogon species offer an excellent model system for testing questions concerning the ecology and population biology of recently derived allotetraploid species and their diploid progenitors.

A path for the Palouse: An example of conservation and recreation planning

This is a case study about conservation and recreation planning for a portion of eastern Washington and northern Idaho (U.S.A.) known as the Palouse region. As a means to improve the conservation of farmlands, increase recreation and cultural reflection opportunities, encourage quality economic development and reduce traffic hazards, a multipurpose path is proposed. The path would physically link the small university cities of Pullman, Washington and Moscow, Idaho. Conservation is especially important in the Palouse because the region is both highly productive in agriculture and very susceptible to environmental degradation by soil erosion. The area has a unique landscape of unforested, rolling hills, primarily used for grain production. The location in question consists of approximately 8 miles of undualting terrain located mostly in Whitman County, Washington. The corridor between Pullman and Moscow is situated within the watershed of the South Fork of the Palouse River. The elements to be included in the path are based on the results of citizen involvement led by a non-profit, volunteer group called the Palouse Path Task Force. The task force was organized by the Pullman Civic Trust. Members of the task force worked with property owners and government officials to seek consensus on conservation and recreation issues related to the corridor between the two cities. Goal-setting was followed by identification of resources, discussion of major issues, development of a concept plan to explain the idea to local officials and implementation steps for future work. This paper summarizes these steps, gives results and provides insights on the importance of the approach taken to achieve action.

Policy and reality of Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Whitman County, Washington, USA

The Washington State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) promotes the conservation of natural resources through procedural review of proposed actions which may impact natural systems. There are, however, many actions specifically exempt from the SEPA review process. Since many exempt actions could have significant adverse effects on natural resources at one location and not another, the SEPA statute contains a provision that enables local governments to designate Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs). Within the ESAs, these potentially adverse activities are subject to SEPA review. Local governments have complete control over the exact definition of the ESA criteria and the types of local projects exempt from SEPA. Whitman County, the most productive wheat-producing county in Washington, has recognized the need for conservation of its natural resources in its comprehensive plan but has not implemented the ESA provision. A representative watershed within Whitman County was used as a case study to identify areas which would qualify for ESA status. In these areas, specific soil, water, and biological characteristics or resources were identified as sensitive to certain common land uses. Significant differences were found between state and county policies regarding ESAs and actual conditions within the watershed. It may be more effective for the state to manage ESAs on a consistent and regional basis.

Use of agricultural land evaluation and site assessment in Whitman County, Washington, USA

Whitman County, Washington, USA, one of the largest wheat producing counties in the country, developed a land evaluation and site assessment system for evaluating proposed conversions of agricultural land to heavy commercial uses. The system uses soil potential indices to determine a land evaluation score and a nine-factor site assessment system to weigh suitability for development. Details on each of these are provided along with results for four sample sites.

Nitrate Contamination of Domestic Potable Water Supplies: A Social Problem?

Nitrate contamination of potable water supplies is a recognized health hazard. Potentially, the contamination of private drinking water supplies could be a problem in the rural Palouse area of Idaho and Washington. Studies have shown that 12 percent of the rural population of Whitman County, Washington, may be drinking water containing nitrates in excess of the national standard. Yet there is no organized concern about this potential health hazard among local citizens. After reviewing the literature on nitrate contamination of ground water and discussing nitrate contamination of private potable water supplies in the Palouse, we use a social movement theory of social problems to explain why this situation has not been defined as a public health problem.

Resource suitability: Methods for analyses

There is a growing need to develop methods for analyzing resource suitability that are both legally defensible and accurate. Three approaches to suitability analysis are reviewed: the US Soil Conservation Service capability classification and important farmlands mapping; the McHarg, or Pennsylvania, suitability analysis method; and Dutch approaches to suitability analysis. Computer applications and the carrying-capacity concept are briefly reviewed. Three applications of suitability analysis are discussed: examples from Medford Township, New Jersey; Whitman County, Washington; and Abuja, the new federal capital city of Nigeria.

New species of green microalgae (Chlorophycophyta) from an eastern Washington silt loam

Abstract Five new species of green microalgae are described from axenic cultures isolated from the surface millimetre of a Schumacher silt loam in Whitman County, Washington, U.S.A. They are as follows: Order Chlorococcales—Characium astipitatum sp. nov. (BM-105), Chlorococcum pseudodictyosphaerium sp. nov. (BM-104), Dictyococcus schumacherensis sp. nov. (BM-126). Order Chlorosarcinales—Chlorosarcinopsis amylophila sp. nov. (BM-141). Order Chaetophorales—Pleurastrum pholoheterotrophicum sp. nov. (BM-172). Supplementary characteristics are quantified in addition to traditional morphological descriptions. The properties included are form and colour of the plant-mass, differential utilization of nitrogen and carbon sources, growth in complex bacteriological media, production of extracellular enzymes, and tolerance to antibiotics and crystal violet.

THE OCCURRENCE OF BLUE-GREEN ALGAE IN SILT LOAMS OF WHITMAN COUNTY, WASHINGTON

The occurrence of blue-green algae in cultivated and noncultivated soils in Whitman County, Washington, was studied over a 12-month period. Nostoc and Anabaena were found in the soils, Nostoc being ubiquitous. Microbial enumeration was by the most-probable-number method. Moisture and temperature were recorded on each sampling date, while climatic and agronomic events were noted and chemical properties estimated for four soil series. The infrequent occurrence and low densities of blue-green algae in the soils make improbable any assumption that nitrogen input by blue-green algae is significant in this region. Rapid loss of surface soil moisture, seasonal climatic fluctuations, slightly acid soils, and agricultural practices were probably the major reasons why greater numbers and diversity of blue-green algae were not observed on cultivated soils, while uncultivated soils supported more kinds and numbers.

The Reproductive Cycle of the Chukar

This is a 2-year study (1958-60) of the reproductive cycle of the chukar (Alectoris graeca) in southeastern Washington. Pairing occurred from early February to late March, with birds over 1 year of age being the first to form pairs. The pair bond appeared to endure until early in the incubation period. Testicular recrudescence began during late January, progressing at a relatively gradual and constant rate; the full breeding condition appeared to be reached by late March and persisted about 3 months; and regression was two-phased, occurring largely within 4 to 6 weeks. Ovarian and oviducal cycles were timed similarly. Recrudescence began about February 1 and progressed in two phases, a period of gradual change followed by a period of rapid development before the onset of egg laying. Most females laid the first egg between mid-March and mid-April. Six captive females laid 221 eggs at a mean rate of 1.3 days per egg. Renesting persisted following loss of eggs prior to hatching; some females continued to lay until mid-July. Dates for initiation of incubation ranged from about April 19 to July 19, hatching from about May 1 to mid-August (peak about June 21). Regression of ovaries and oviducts occurred in two stages, a short period of extremely rapid change during incubation followed by a long period of gradual change. The present study provides a more detailed understanding of the reproductive cycle of the chukar than has been available previously and serves as a basis for future ecological and physiological investigations. Relatively few data are available on the reproductive cycle of the chukar. Galbreath and Moreland (1953) in Washington, Christensen (1954) in Nevada, and Harper et al. (1958) in California report primarily on releases, successful establishment, ecology, and general life history. Reproductive behavior is discussed only in general in these papers. This investigation was supported in part by funds provided for biological and medical research by the State of Washington Initiative Measure No. 171. The Washington Department of Game provided a collecting permit and funds to conduct studies during the summer of 1959. We wish to thank Dr. Irven O. Buss for his helpful suggestions, Dr. Richard A. Parker for assistance with statistical analyses, and Dr. Robert L. Eng for his comments concerning the manuscript. STUDY AREA The investigation was conducted on a 47-square-mile study area located adjacent to the Snake River in Whitman County, Washington. The steep, rocky, and deeply cut breaks of the Snake River Canyon characterize the area. A vertical drop of about 1,900 feet extends over an average distance of 2 miles from rolling farmlands adjacent to the upper margin of the Canyon to the Snake River. The slopes are covered by sagebrush-grassland type vegetation heavily interspersed by basalt outcroppings and talus slides. Daubenmire (1942) describes the vegetation of the area as within the Agropyron spicatumrr-Poa secunda vegetation zone. However, prevailing cover types vary as a result of edaphic and disturbance factors. The area is semiarid, receiving about 13 inches of precipitation annually. The chukar population on the study area resulted from releases of 700 game-farm birds stocked in several groups along the Snake River in Whitman County, Washington, during March and April, 1951 (Galbreath and Moreland 1953). The research

Victims of the Brown-Headed Cowbird in Whitman County, Washington

Victims of the Brown-Headed Cowbird in Whitman County, Washington Get access James R. King James R. King Department of Zoology, State College of Washington, Pullman, Washington Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Condor, Volume 56, Issue 3, 1 May 1954, Pages 150–154, https://doi.org/10.2307/1364782 Published: 01 May 1954

Nesting of the Western Flycatcher in Whitman County, Washington

Nesting of the Western Flycatcher in Whitman County, Washington