Wheat Production In India Research Articles

Quantifying effects of climate change and farmers' information demand on wheat yield in India: a deep learning approach with regional clustering

IntroductionWith increasing demand for food and changing environmental conditions, a better understanding of the factors impacting wheat yield is essential for ensuring food security and sustainable agriculture. By analyzing the effect of multiple factors on wheat yield, the presented research provides novel insights into the potential impacts of climate change on wheat production in India. In the present study, datasets consisting of countrywide environmental and agronomic factors and wheat yield were collected. In addition, the study also analyzes the effect of information demand of farmers on production.MethodologyThe study employs a regional analysis approach by dividing the country into five zonal clusters: Northern Hills, Central India, Indo-Gangetic Plains, North-Eastern India, and Peninsular India. Correlation and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were performed to uncover the month-wise key factors affecting wheat yield in each zone. Furthermore, four Machine Learning/Deep Learning-based models, including XGBoost, Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP), Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU), and 1-D Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), were developed to estimate wheat yield. This study estimated partial derivatives for all factors using Newton's Quotient Technique, a numerical method-based approach.ResultsThe analysis focused on applying this technique to the best-performing wheat yield estimation model, which was the GRU-based model (with RMSE and MAE of 0.60 t/ha and 0.46 t/ha, respectively).DiscussionIn the later sections of the article, multiple policy recommendations are communicated based on the extracted insights. The results of the presented research help inform decision-making regarding the development of strategies and policies to mitigate the impacts of climate change on wheat production in India.

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WHEAT PRODUCTION IN THE LIGHT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA

India is the second-largest producer of wheat in the world. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Gujarat are the major wheat-producing states. Out of all of these states, Uttar Pradesh produces the larger quantity of wheat. Wheat is exported by India to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, the Philippines, and Indonesia. This study aims to analyze the effects of climate change and other non-climatic factors on wheat production in India between 1991 and 2021. The researcher used climate and non-climate change variables: mean, maximum, minimum temperature, rainfall, production, net MSP, and cultivation area. This work tested long-run cointegration using an Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bound test cointegration technique to evaluate short-run relationships among modeled variables. CUSUM and CUSUMQ tests assure model reliability and validity. The study’s findings demonstrated that the cultivated area has a major role in enhancing wheat output in the short and long term, while precipitation favors wheat production. In India, a 1% increase in cultivation area can increase 1.3% in wheat production in the long run. In the short run, a 1% increase in cultivation area increased 0.58% wheat production in India. Furthermore, although the temperature has little immediate effect, it is crucial for boosting wheat output over the long term.

Why climate change spells dangerous for humanity

Today no one may be hesitant to talk about climate change because we are feeling its effects on health. In this article, you will find basic information about the subject, what it is, what causes it, and what we can do about it. But you don’t need to be an expert on climate to talk about the risks climate change poses to human health, or the health benefits of taking action against these changes. When the subject is a climate change, we often hear specialist no knowledge in fact about subject. People often talk about climate change with too much emotion and without paying attention to the facts that are driving those climate changes. At one moment they talk about people and animals dying for lack of water or food, at another moment, they point to the negative effects on people's health. This article points out some causes of the effects of these changes on people. One of the causes is the lack of water and the reduction of food supply. Another cause is heat wave with temperature reaching a record of 49 degrees Celsius in several cities, with an effect on people's regular work, breathing difficulties and water shortage. This article is based on exploratory research to get to know the topic in more depth and establish an opening for future research. The technique for obtaining information is a bibliographical one that points out the facts that generate the impacts of climate change on the lives of people and animals, aiming to stimulate understanding and discussion about the problem. The first results of this research indicate that the problems generated by climate change in the health of people and animals are the reduction in food production, for example: the production of wheat in India; death of people in Pakistan, Spain, India due to temperatures of 49 degrees Celsius and, finally, the lack of water in Somalia and other regions.

Long-Term Conservation Agriculture Influences Weed Diversity, Water Productivity, Grain Yield, and Energy Budgeting of Wheat in North-Western Indo-Gangetic Plains

Wheat is grown in an area totalling 31.1 million hectares in India. The North-western Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) constitutes the major share of area and production of wheat in India and is known as the wheat belt of India. However, sustaining wheat production under declining/lower resource-use efficiency in the existing rice–wheat cropping system has led to considerations about diversifying this system with a pigeon pea–wheat system (PWS) in the IGP of India. However, little or no information is available on the impact of CA-based PWS on weed dynamics, productivity, profitability, and resource-use efficiencies. Therefore, we studied these aspects in wheat under a long-term (~12 years) conservation agriculture (CA)-based PWS. Treatments were conventional till flatbed (CT), ZT permanent narrow beds (PNBR & PNB), broad beds (PBBR & PBB), and flat beds (PFBR & PFB) with and without residue (R) retention and different N levels (75% and 100% of the recommended N). The results showed that the Shannon–Weiner index and the Simpson dominance index were higher under the CA system in 2021–2022 than in 2010–2011 and 2015–2016, indicating a change in weed diversity over the period. Furthermore, the Sorensen similarity index showed that there was not much difference in weed diversity for 2010–2011. However, in 2015–2016 and 2021–2022 respectively, only 89% (0.89) and 62% (0.62) of weed species were common to both CT and CA systems, indicating a shift in weed species in the long-term CA system in 2021–2022. Residue retention and N dose decreased weed density at 30 days after sowing (DAS). All the CA-based (PFBR100N, PBBR100N, PNBR100N, PFBR75N, PBBR75N, and PNBR75N) treatments reduced the weed density and dry weight compared to CT at 30 DAS. Wheat grain yield and net returns increased by 11.6–14.9% and 19.4–23.8% over CT in CA treatments, of which PFBR100N and PBBR100N were superior. The PBBR100N and PBBR75N systems had water productivity significantly higher than CT. Residue retention in ZT permanent beds reduced energy productivity in CA than CT and no residue treatments. In the 12th year, CA with 75% N (PFBR75N, PBBR75N, PNBR75N) resulted in a higher partial factor productivity of N and total NPK applied. Contrast analysis showed that 75% N was comparable with 100% N on crop, water, and energy productivities and 75% N was superior to 100% N on partial factor productivity of N and total NPK. Thus, the permanent broad bed with residue and 100% N in the initial years and 75% N in later years can be adopted in the north-western IGP for better weed suppression, higher yield, profitability, and resource-use efficiency.

A STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF RICE AND WHEAT PRODUCTION IN INDIA BASED ON SEASON USING MACHINE LEARNING CLASSIFICATION ALGORITHMS

A STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF RICE AND WHEAT PRODUCTION IN INDIA BASED ON SEASON USING MACHINE LEARNING CLASSIFICATION ALGORITHMS

Artificial Neural Network Model to Forecast Energy Consumption in Wheat Production in India

Energy analysis in agriculture sector require modelling technique that can incorporate complex unknown interactions and non-linearity in systems. In this study Artificial neural network technique is used to model and forecast input energy consumed in wheat production in India and is compared for predictive accuracy with linear models. Household data from 256 farmers revealed that the average input energy consumed in region is 29612.43 MJ/ha with urea (47%), diesel (31.5%) and electricity (9.8%) being three main contributors. Multi-layered feed forward model with 2 hidden layers with 8 and 15 neurons respectively and sigmoidal activation function in hidden layers and output layers under gradient descent training algorithm gave the best results. The R2 was 0.99 for training dataset and 0.973 for validation data set, while for MLR model it was 0.95 and 0.73 for respective datasets. The root mean squared error (RMSE) in ANN model was 4779.2 MJ/ha and 2008.96 MJ/ha for training and validation data, respectively. This prediction system could forecast input energy with error margin of ± 7889.83 MJ/ha on training dataset and ± 3298.47 MJ/ha on validation data under various combinations. Sensitivity analysis showed that urea, diesel, and electricity are the important factors in input energy forecasting.

Bioclimatic modeling and FACE study forecast a bleak future for wheat production in India.

Since the impact of future climate change on wheat productivity isinconsistent, we studied geographic distribution and yield of wheat using two global General Circulation Models (GCMs) and Free Air CO2/O3 Enrichment (FACE) experiments. The GCMs (IPSL-CM5A-LR and NIMR-HADGEM2-AO) with four Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) and 19 bioclimatic variables were used for distribution/ecological niche modeling (ENM). Currently cultivated eight wheat cultivars were exposed to individual treatment of(i) ambient CO2, temperature, and ozone (ACO + AO + AT) representing the present climate scenario, and (ii) elevated CO2 (550ppm) (ECO), (iii) elevated temperature (+ 2°C) (ET), (iv) elevated O3 (ambient + 20ppb) (EO), (v) elevated CO2 + elevated O3 (ECO + EO), and (vi) elevated CO2 + elevated temperature + elevated O3 (ECO + EO + ET) under FACE facility simulating the future climate change scenarios in 2050. The niche models predicted a reduction in climatically suitable areas for wheat, and identified "maximum temperature" as the most influencing factorfor area reduction. The elevated CO2, O3, and temperature individually and in combinations had differential impacts on the yield of wheat cultivars. Only two cultivars, viz., DBW 184 and DBW 187 did not exhibit yield decline suggesting their suitability in the future climate change scenario. Since the performance of six out of eightcultivars significantly declined under simulated FACE experiment, and ENM predicted reduction in wheat cultivation area under RCP 8.5 in 2050,it was concluded that future of wheat cultivation in India is bleak. The study further indicates that coupling of bioclimatic modeling and FACE experiment can effectively predict the impact of climate change on different crops.

Trends in Area, Production and Productivity of Wheat Cultivation at Global Level

The present study was conducted on trend analysis of wheat production in India and Afghanistan. The study was based on secondary data collected from various published and unpublished sources in India, Afghanistan and at the global level from 2000-19. The present study was undertaken to know the growth rate in area, production and productivity of wheat in India and Afghanistan which were found positive during 2019-20. The findings of this study have far-reaching implications that will have a significant impact on the planning, execution, and design of appropriate methodologies in order to achieve meaningful and fruitful demonstration results not only for wheat growers, but also for other sectors that essentially provide feedback to agencies involved in various demonstration programmes. It explicitly emphasises the relevance of frontline demonstration in increasing farmer production, returns and reduce the extension and technology gap.

Molecular diversity, haplotype distribution and genetic variation flow of Bipolaris sorokiniana fungus causing spot blotch disease in different wheat-growing zones.

Bipolaris sorokiniana (BS) is an economically important fungal pathogen causing spot blotch of wheat (Trtiticum aestivum) and found in all wheat-growing zones of India. Very scanty and fragmentary information is available on its genetic diversity. The current research is the first detailed report on the geographic distribution and evolution of BS population in five geographically distinct wheat-growing zones (North Western Plain Zone (NWPZ), North Eastern Plain zone (NEPZ), North Hill Zone (NHZ), Southern Hill Zone (SHZ) and Peninsular Zone (PZ)) of India, studied by performing nucleotide sequence comparison of internal transcribed spacer region of 528 isolates. A moderate to low levels of haplotypic diversity was noticed in different wheat-growing zones. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that B. sorokiniana exist in two distinct lineages as all isolates under study were grouped in two different clades and found analogous to the findings of haplotypic and TCS network analysis. The genetic parameters revealed the existence of 40 haplotypes with three major haplotypes (H-1, H-2 and H-3) which showed star-like structure network surrounded by several single haplotypes, revealing high frequency of the mutations (Eta = 2 - 158) in total analyzed population. H-1 was observed as a predominant haplotype and prevalent in all the five zones. Moderate level of genetic differentiation was found between NHZ and other zones like NWPZ (Fst = 0.332) and SHZ (Fst = 0.382) and PZ (Fst = 0.299), whereas it was low between NEPZ and PZ (Fst = 0.034). Higher transfer rate of genetic variation was noticed between NEPZ and PZ (Nm = 7.06), while it was found minimum between NHZ and SHZ (Nm = 0.40). Moreover, negative score of neutrality statistics (Tajima's D and Fu's FS test) for NWPZ population suggested recent population expansion. However, positive score for both the neutrality tests observed in NEPZ indicated the dominance of balancing selection in structuring their population. Recombination events were observed in the NWPZ and NHZ population, while it was absent in SHZ, NEPZ and PZ population. Thus, the lack of any specific genetic population structure in all the zones indicates for the expansion history only from one common source population, i.e. NWPZ, a mega zone of wheat production in India. Overall, it seems that the predominance of individual haplotypes with a moderate level of genetic variation and human-mediated movement of contaminated seed and dispersal of inoculum, mutations and recombination as prime evolutionary processes play essential role in defining the genetic structure of BS population.

Identification of Genomic Regions and Sources for Wheat Blast Resistance through GWAS in Indian Wheat Genotypes.

Wheat blast (WB) is a devastating fungal disease that has recently spread to Bangladesh and poses a threat to the wheat production in India, which is the second-largest wheat producing country in the world. In this study, 350 Indian wheat genotypes were evaluated for WB resistance in 12 field experiments in three different locations, namely Jashore in Bangladesh and Quirusillas and Okinawa in Bolivia. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across the genome were obtained using DArTseq® technology, and 7554 filtered SNP markers were selected for a genome-wide association study (GWAS). All the three GWAS approaches used identified the 2NS translocation as the only major source of resistance, explaining up to 32% of the phenotypic variation. Additional marker-trait associations were located on chromosomes 2B, 3B, 4D, 5A and 7A, and the combined effect of three SNPs (2B_180938790, 7A_752501634 and 5A_618682953) showed better resistance, indicating their additive effects on WB resistance. Among the 298 bread wheat genotypes, 89 (29.9%) carried the 2NS translocation, the majority of which (60 genotypes) were CIMMYT introductions, and 29 were from India. The 2NS carriers with a grand mean WB index of 6.6 showed higher blast resistance compared to the non-2NS genotypes with a mean index of 46.5. Of the 52 durum wheats, only one genotype, HI 8819, had the 2NS translocation and was the most resistant, with a grand mean WB index of 0.93. Our study suggests that the 2NS translocation is the only major resistance source in the Indian wheat panel analysed and emphasizes the urgent need to identify novel non-2NS resistance sources and genomic regions.

Technical Efficiency of Wheat Production in Major Wheat Producing States of India: A Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)

This study was conducted to estimate the technical efficiency of wheat production in major wheat-producing states of India using secondary data for the period 2000-01 to 2016-17. The area of study comprised those states which covered more than 80 per cent of wheat production in India, i.e., Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Haryana. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was used to estimate the state-specific technical efficiency in wheat production. The results showed that the technical efficiency in wheat production increased over time The correlation coefficient between mean technical efficiency and growth rate of yield was strongly positive and highly significant, revealing that the higher technical efficiency was directly reflected in higher yield from wheat cultivation.

Study on Profitability of Wheat in Major Wheat Producing States of India

The present study was undertaken with the objective to compare the minimum support price (MSP) with total Cost (C2) of wheat and also actual yield with break-even yield in major wheat producing states of India. The secondary data were collected from Directorate of Economics and Statistics for the period 2000-01 to 2016-17. The area of study comprises those states which covered >80 per cent of wheat production in India (i.e., Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana). The result of study showed that the difference between MSP and cost C2 per quintal was found to be positive but fluctuating over the study period (except in the year 2002-03 and 2005-06 in Madhya Pradesh and 2005-06 and 2014-15 in Uttar Pradesh). It can be concluded that wheat growers of the states benefitted more from MSP by cultivation of wheat. The margin of safety was also fluctuating over the period of time in all the five wheat-producing states but gap continuously widening in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan revealed that the profitability from wheat was increasing in these states.

Benefits of irrigation against heat stress in agriculture: Evidence from wheat crop in India

Applying the fixed effects regression technique to the highly spatially disaggregated district-level data from 1966–67 to 2011–12 this paper has assessed the impact of heat stress on wheat production in India and concurrently evaluated the role of irrigation towards offsetting its harmful impact. It has brought out three key highlights. One, heat stress negatively impacts crop yield, and the impact has increased over time. Two, irrigation, besides its contribution towards improving crop yield, also moderates the harmful impact of heat stress, but over time its effectiveness has declined. Three, the measure of heat stress built on multiple aspects of excess temperature (i.e., intensity, persistence, and frequency) explains variation in crop yield better than does a single aspect of it. Given the increasing scarcity of irrigation water and rising temperature, these findings suggest the need for exploring technological and policy options for improving irrigation water-use efficiency and breeding of crops for heat tolerance and low water footprints.

Effect of different mitigation options on growth, productivity and economics of wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is second most important food grain after rice and is consumed in different forms. The production of wheat in India is currently facing new challenges due to increasing population and adverse impacts of climate change. The production of wheat has increased significantly after the introduction of high yielding varieties. Modern wheat cultivars require adequate amount of nitrogen (N) fertilizer and several irrigations for economical production. The amount and type of nitrogen fertilizers not only affect the production of wheat but also has impact on climate change due to emission of nitrous oxide. A field experiment was conducted in 2016-17 to study the impact of water management (3 and 5 irrigations) and nitrogen fertilizer (urea, neem coated urea (NCU), urea with thiourea, and leaf colour chart (LCC) based N application) on wheat production and profitability. The nitrogen-management practices and irrigation practices significantly influenced the yield parameters, cost of cultivation, net returns and benefit to cost ratio of wheat crop. Grain yield was increased by 15.89% (p ≥ 0.05) in 5 irrigations compared to 3 irrigations. The grain yield increased by 3.0%, 3.4% and 5.9% in treatments where N was applied using NCU, LCC based N application and urea + thiourea respectively, over urea treatment. Grain yield per kg of N applied was highest in LCC based N application treatment followed by thiourea + urea, NCU and urea N treatments. Highest gross returns was from thiourea treatment however the net returns and B: C ratio were highest in LCC based urea N application due to higher biological yield and saving of 20 kg nitrogen per ha. The study revealed that the economic performance of greenhouse gas mitigation technologies where N was applied based on the plant requirement using leaf colour chart and 5 irrigations was the best followed by application of nitrification inhibitor thiourea with urea and 5 irrigations.

Impact of endophytic bacteria against yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici) of wheat

Wheat is a dominant cereal crop worldwide and very important as a staple food resource. A number of pathogens cause damage to wheat crop, of which yellow rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici is one of the major threats to wheat production in India. Chemical control leads to resistance development against the pathogen. Biological control, the use of natural antagonists to combat plant diseases has emerged as a promising alternative to chemical pesticides. Keeping in view the importance of the disease the present investigation was undertaken with the aim to observe the impact of endophytic bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens as biocontrol agents against yellow rust of wheat. Talc based bioformulations of two bacterial biocontrol agents, viz. Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens were used at different concentrations to observe their effectiveness against yellow rust. In addition to this, the activity of various defense related enzymes Peroxidase (PO), Polyphenol oxidase (PPO), Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase (PAL) along with Phenols and Proteins was also observed. Our findings indicated that the yellow rust severity in P. fluorescens (T14) fermented liquid (FL) (PF) @15 g/l of water as foiler spray exhibited 43.71 per cent and it gave 50.07 per cent disease control in rabi 2015. Whereas B. amyloliquefaciens (T3) fermented liquid bacterial cell (FLBC) (FDK21) @15 g/kg of seed showed 53.25% disease severity along with 39.20% disease control in rabi 2015 and enhanced the grain yield. Both the treatments were significantly better than the untreated control. But they were less superior than the chemical control. Similar trend has been observed in rabi 2016 season. The activity of the defense related enzymes that is PO, PPO and PAL as well as phenol and protein content was observed to be elevated in P. fluorescens T4(54.35 Units min-1 g-1 F W), T10( 24.39 Units min-1 g-1 F W), T14(103.36 μg t-cinnamic acid formed hr-1 g-1), T10 (6.89 mg/g F W) and T14(111.56 mg/g F W) and B. amyloliquefaciens T3(29.01 Units min-1 g-1 F W), T3(19.54 Units min-1 g-1 F W), T3(97.98 μg t-cinnamic acid formed hr-1 g-1), T3(46.89 mg/g F W), T3 (98.08 Units min-1 g-1 F W)) treated wheat plants as compared to chemically treated (T2 19.77 Units min-1 g-1 F W, 7.41 Units min-1 g-1 F W, 97.94 μg t-cinnamic acid formed hr-1 g-1, 2.93 mg/g F W, 72.40 mg/g F W) and untreated control plants ( T1 13.61 Units min-1 g-1 F W, 1.90 Units min-1 g-1 F W, 88.73 μg t-cinnamic acid formed hr-1 g-1 , 2.74 mg/g F W, 44.90 mg/g F W). Since several strains of Pseudomonas and Bacillus can act as BCA through an induced systemic resistance response in the plant against pathogens. So these biocontrol agents played major role through an induced systemic resistance response in the plant against pathogens and also help the plant in accelerating their defense response against the pathogens. Therefore it is suggested that the novel use of biocontrol agents Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens.

Impact of environmental changes and land management practices on wheat production in India

Abstract. Spring wheat is a major food crop that is a staple for a large number of people in India and the world. To address the issue of food security, it is essential to understand how the productivity of spring wheat varies with changes in environmental conditions and agricultural management practices. The goal of this study is to quantify the role of different environmental factors and management practices on wheat production in India in recent years (1980 to 2016). Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]) and climate change are identified as two major factors that represent changes in the environment. The addition of nitrogen fertilizers and irrigation practices are the two land management factors considered in this study. To study the effects of these factors on wheat growth and production, we developed crop growth processes for spring wheat in India and implemented them in the Integrated Science Assessment Model (ISAM), a state-of-the-art land model. The model is able to simulate the observed leaf area index (LAI) at the site scale and observed production at the country scale. Numerical experiments are conducted with the model to quantify the effect of each factor on wheat production on a country scale for India. Our results show that elevated [CO2] levels, water availability through irrigation, and nitrogen fertilizers have led to an increase in annual wheat production at 0.67, 0.25, and 0.26 Mt yr−1, respectively, averaged over the time period 1980–2016. However, elevated temperatures have reduced the total wheat production at a rate of 0.39 Mt yr−1 during the study period. Overall, the [CO2], irrigation, fertilizers, and temperature forcings have led to 22 Mt (30 %), 8.47 Mt (12 %), 10.63 Mt (15 %), and −13 Mt (−18 %) changes in countrywide production, respectively. The magnitudes of these factors spatially vary across the country thereby affecting production at regional scales. Results show that favourable growing season temperatures, moderate to high fertilizer application, high availability of irrigation facilities, and moderate water demand make the Indo-Gangetic Plain the most productive region, while the arid north-western region is the least productive due to high temperatures and lack of irrigation facilities to meet the high water demand.

Variability and Growth in Production of Wheat in India

Variability and Growth in Production of Wheat in India

India’s Evergreen Revolution in Cereals

The term ‘Green Revolution’ (GR) is used to highlight an unprecedented increase in wheat production in India during 1968–72. The critics of GR allege that there is technology fatigue, especially after 1980s. The present study was undertaken to analyse the trends in productivity of major cereals and compare yield gains during the GR era and post-GR era. The period of 68 years since 1950 was divided in four phases: pre-GR era (1950–66) referred to as phase I, GR era (1967–83) as phase II, post-GR era of 1984–2000 as phase III and post-GR era of 2001–17 as phase IV. The annual rate of gain in productivity (kg/ha/yr) in each phase was estimated by linear regression. The annual gain in wheat productivity in phase III (53.1 kg/ha) was 30% higher than that in the GR era (41.0 kg/ha). In rice, the productivity gains increased consistently: annual gain in phase III (32.3 kg/ha) and phase IV (41.6 kg/ha) was 68% to 117% respectively, higher than that in the GR era (19.2 kg/ha). The rate of gain in productivity of maize and pearl millet in phases III and IV was 188–530% higher in comparison to the GR phase. The progress can largely be attributed to development and adoption of improved cultivars with higher yield potential and crop management technologies. The analysis provided conclusive evidence of India experiencing evergreen revolution in major cereals.

Effect of mineral nutrients, seed treatment and foliar fungicides on spot blotch (Bipolaris sorokiniana) severity and agronomic performance of wheat (Triticum aestivum) in hot-humid environment of eastern Gangetic plain in India

Spot blotch disease [Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.)] is one of the most serious biotic constraint affecting wheat production in India. The effect of balanced macro- and micro-fertilization, fungicidal seed treatment and foliar fungicides either individually or in combination were assessed for their impact on spot blotch severity, grain yield, and other yield attributing characters during 2012-13 and 2013-14. Average maximum temperature (27.0°C) and high relative humidity (>90%) in February and March during both the years favoured disease development and spread. In vitro analysis of untreated pre-sown seeds using a blotter paper test revealed 19.2% and 32.5% seed infection with B. sorokiniana during 2012-13 and 2013-14, respectively. At the end of each cropping season, seed infection in harvested seed lots ranged from 5-6% in treatments with a combination of balanced fertility, seed treatment and foliar fungicide, 13% following two sprays of propiconazole, and 71% in control treatment. Application of balanced nutrition alone reduced AUDPC by 37% and increased grain yield up to 26%. However, the combined influence of balanced nutrition, carboxin + thiram seed treatment and two foliar sprays of propiconazole resulted in a 99% reduction in AUDPC values with 60% higher grain yield (6.30 t/ha), 45% higher TKW (41.33 g) and significant increase in other yield attributes. The current study illustrates the role of a combination of crop and disease management practices in the control of spot blotch and improving the agronomic performance of wheat in eastern plains of India.

Droughts in India from 1981 to 2013 and Implications to Wheat Production

Understanding drought from multiple perspectives is critical due to its complex interactions with crop production, especially in India. However, most studies only provide singular view of drought and lack the integration with specific crop phenology. In this study, four time series of monthly meteorological, hydrological, soil moisture, and vegetation droughts from 1981 to 2013 were reconstructed for the first time. The wheat growth season (from October to April) was particularly analyzed. In this study, not only the most severe and widespread droughts were identified, but their spatial-temporal distributions were also analyzed alone and concurrently. The relationship and evolutionary process among these four types of droughts were also quantified. The role that the Green Revolution played in drought evolution was also studied. Additionally, the trends of drought duration, frequency, extent, and severity were obtained. Finally, the relationship between crop yield anomalies and all four kinds of drought during the wheat growing season was established. These results provide the knowledge of the most influential drought type, conjunction, spatial-temporal distributions and variations for wheat production in India. This study demonstrates a novel approach to study drought from multiple views and integrate it with crop growth, thus providing valuable guidance for local drought mitigation.