Wheat Flour Quality Research Articles

Particle Size as an Indicator of Wheat Flour Quality: A Review

Wheat flour is one of the most important food raw materials, with its quality determined by various indicators. One such indicator is particle size and granulometric distribution. In recent years, numerous studies have focused on the effect of flour and bran particle size on the properties of cereal products such as bread, pasta, noodles, and cookies. The aim of this review was to analyze the extent to which this parameter influences the properties of these cereal products. Additionally, the relationships between flour particle size and its chemical composition were presented. Key factors affecting the granulometric composition of flour, related to wheat grain properties and the grinding process, were also discussed. The study specifically focuses on research conducted in the last five years.

Cold atmospheric plasma degradation of deoxynivalenol in solid and liquid phases and its effect on whole wheat flour quality

Cold atmospheric plasma degradation of deoxynivalenol in solid and liquid phases and its effect on whole wheat flour quality

Wheat Flour Discrimination Using Two-Dimensional Correlation Spectroscopy and Deep Learning.

The continuous evolution of deep learning has garnered significant attention in spectroscopy. This study focuses on identifying wheat flour, presenting a more efficient and accurate method by combining two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) and deep learning techniques. A data set of 316 near-infrared (NIR) spectral samples of four types of wheat flour was collected. By applying three disparate 2D-COS techniques, i.e., synchronous, asynchronous, and integrated, we crafted 948 2D-COS images. These images, obtained by transforming the original one-dimensional spectra into 2D representations, offer richer information for deep learning analysis. The study introduced an 18-layer residual network incorporating a convolutional attention mechanism, specifically tailored for the 2D-COS analysis of wheat flour, aimed at enhancing the model's discriminative capabilities by refining the residual neural network's structure. Achieving an unprecedented recognition accuracy of 100% through methodical optimization and rigorous training on the synchronous 2D-COS data set of wheat flour, the proposed model is a testament to the efficacy of deep learning in spectroscopic analysis. To further exhibit the confluence of 2D-COS with deep learning, t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding was employed to visualize the distinctive 2D-COS features within the deep learning architecture. Additionally, the model's performance was juxtaposed with prevailing NIR spectral recognition methods, including random forest, gradient boosting decision tree, and artificial neural network. This comparison cemented the proposed approach's superiority in wheat flour categorization. The findings of this study not only introduce a novel and efficient solution for wheat flour quality analysis but also underscore the significant potential of deep learning techniques in spectroscopy applications.

Physicochemical characterization and sensory enhancement of cold plasma treated black whole wheat flour

This study examined the effects of cold plasma (CP) treatment on the physicochemical properties and sensory quality of black whole wheat flour (BWWF). Various factors including nutrient composition, color, amino acids, aroma, particle size, microstructure, antioxidant activity, and water migration were analyzed before and after CP treatment. The findings revealed that CP treatment had a minimal impact on the baseline nutrient composition of BWWF, but significantly improved its free amino acid profile, enhancing its nutritional value. The treated BWWF had an improved surface color, appeared brighter and yellower, and gave off a pleasant mellow aroma, while removing unpleasant flavor. The total phenolic content of BWWF increased while the flavonoid and anthocyanin content decreased after the treatment. CP-treated BWWF underwent aggregation cross-linking in the microstructure, and the content of bound water decreased, but the stability increased. In conclusion, CP treatment had great potential to improve the physicochemical properties and sensory quality of BWWF.

Quality and noodle-making performance of wheat flour with varied gluten strengths altered by addition of various arabinoxylans.

This study examined the effects of adding different types of arabinoxylans (AXs) to wheat flour with varying gluten strengths on flour quality and noodle-making performance, with the aim of utilizing AXs as health-enhanced ingredients. Three flours (Goso, Hojoong, and Joongmo) with low, medium, and high gluten strengths were used, along with two water-extractable AXs (E1 and E2) and one water-unextractable AX (U) with diverse molecular weights and viscosities. The addition of 2% AXs increased the water and sucrose solvent retention capacity values and decreased the gluten performance index values for all flours, with a notable effect on Goso flour by U. The dough development time was prolonged in all flours, necessitating more water for development. The sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation volume increased with the addition of AXs, especially with E2 and U. Pasting properties remained unaffected, suggesting a minimal impact on starch-related properties. However, noodles made with E2 and U showed deteriorated quality in terms of fresh noodle texture, weight gain, cooking water turbidity, and cooked noodle texture, in contrast to noodles made with E1 alone. Additionally, adjusting the water amount when adding U altered the textural properties, approaching that of noodles without added AXs. Overall, the impact of AXs on flour and noodle quality varied depending on their molecular weights, viscosities, and the gluten strength of the flour. Additionally, AXs could be successfully utilized by adjusting the water amount for the production of health-enhancing noodles. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Arabinoxylans, as health-promoting ingredients, can be utilized in noodle production by optimizing the water amount and mixing time.

Применение озона в хранении и переработке зерна (обзор)

Green technologies are gaining popularity in agriculture and the food industry, including such areas as disinfection and detoxification of grain and its products. Ozonation is an effective disinfection procedure. However, scientific data on grain ozonation are scattered and incomplete. The article offers a review and a critical analysis of scientific publications that feature ozonation in grain processing and storage. The keyword search covered publications indexed in eLIBRARY.RU, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI, and Springer Link in 2013–2023. In grain storage and processing, ozonation serves as a green technology of disinfection and detoxification of raw materials and finished products. It increases storage life but does not affect human or animal health. Ozone proved to possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, and insecticidal properties. It was able to degrade mycotoxins and pesticides. The publications reviewed did not report any evidence that ozone reduces the quality of grain or bakery products. On the contrary, it disintegrated quickly, without developing any toxic compounds. Ozone treatment depends on many factors, e.g., raw material humidity, ozone concentration, treatment time, environmental pH and temperature, form of application, etc. In general, ozonation was reported to improve the quality of wheat flour and its products. However, rational variables require additional research. Ozonation of grain and its products was often described as cost-effective. Ozonation has the potential to find extensive application as a green technology that ensures disinfection and detoxification of grain raw materials and finished products, which also means good prospects for grain storage and processing.

Effects of plasma‐activated water and mild heating on Escherichia coli inactivation during wheat tempering and flour quality

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesHeat treatment, as a pathogen reduction step, could compromise flour quality. Plasma‐activated water (PAW) is a novel pathogen reduction treatment for foods. Combining these treatments could improve pathogen inactivation during wheat tempering and maintain flour quality. This study evaluated the effects of PAW and mild heating on Escherichia coli inactivation during wheat tempering and wheat flour quality.FindingsE. coli was inoculated into wheat grains at 6.0 ± 0.1 log CFU/g. A 5‐log reduction was achieved after 6 h of tempering with PAW and heating (55°C), whereas 12 h were needed when using heating and deionized water (DI). Tempering with DI (control) and PAW alone only produced a 1‐log reduction after 24 h. The PAW and PAW + heat tempering treatments produced flours with comparable yield, physicochemical, dough rheology, and bread characteristics compared to the control treatment.ConclusionMild heating and PAW tempering demonstrated a synergistic effect as it produced greater E. coli reductions at shorter tempering times compared to the individual treatments. The hurdle approach used in this study did not compromise flour quality.Significance and NoveltyThe demonstrated hurdle approach can be a viable pathogen mitigation step in wheat milling which could help improve food safety of wheat‐based foods.

Iron Fortification Quality of Wheat Flour: Findings From a Market Assessment in Senegal, West Africa

Iron Fortification Quality of Wheat Flour: Findings From a Market Assessment in Senegal, West Africa

Multi-omic analysis reveals the effects of interspecific hybridization on the synthesis of seed reserve polymers in a Triticum turgidum ssp. durum × Aegilops sharonensis amphidiploid

BackgroundWheat grain endosperm is mainly composed of proteins and starch. The contents and the overall composition of seed storage proteins (SSP) markedly affect the processing quality of wheat flour. Polyploidization results in duplicated chromosomes, and the genomes are often unstable and may result in a large number of gene losses and gene rearrangements. However, the instability of the genome itself, as well as the large number of duplicated genes generated during polyploidy, is an important driving force for genetic innovation. In this study, we compared the differences in starch and SSP, and analyzed the transcriptome and metabolome among Aegilops sharonensis (R7), durum wheat (Z636) and amphidiploid (Z636×R7) to reveal the effects of polyploidization on the synthesis of seed reserve polymers.ResultsThe total starch and amylose content of Z636×R7 was significantly higher than R7 and lower than Z636. The gliadin and glutenin contents of Z636×R7 were higher than those in Z636 and R7. Through transcriptome analysis, there were 21,037, 2197, 15,090 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the three comparison groups of R7 vs Z636, Z636 vs Z636×R7, and Z636×R7 vs R7, respectively, which were mainly enriched in carbon metabolism and amino acid biosynthesis pathways. Transcriptome data and qRT-PCR were combined to analyze the expression levels of genes related to storage polymers. It was found that the expression levels of some starch synthase genes, namely AGP-L, AGP-S and GBSSI in Z636×R7 were higher than in R7 and among the 17 DEGs related to storage proteins, the expression levels of 14 genes in R7 were lower than those in Z636 and Z636×R7. According to the classification analysis of all differential metabolites, most belonged to carboxylic acids and derivatives, and fatty acyls were enriched in the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, niacin and nicotinamide metabolism, one-carbon pool by folate, etc.ConclusionAfter allopolyploidization, the expression of genes related to starch synthesis was down-regulated in Z636×R7, and the process of starch synthesis was inhibited, resulting in delayed starch accumulation and prolongation of the seed development process. Therefore, at the same development time point, the starch accumulation of Z636×R7 lagged behind that of Z636. In this study, the expression of the GSe2 gene in Z636×R7 was higher than that of the two parents, which was beneficial to protein synthesis, and increased the protein content. These results eventually led to changes in the synthesis of seed reserve polymers. The current study provided a basis for a greater in-depth understanding of the mechanism of wheat allopolyploid formation and its stable preservation, and also promoted the effective exploitation of high-value alleles.

Improvement of the Quality by the Cold Plasma on the Sunn Pest (Eurygaster Integriceps)-Damaged Wheat Flour

This study aimed to improve the quality of wheat flour affected by sunn bugs (Eurygaster integriceps) by examining the effects of cold plasma on its physicochemical and dough rheological properties. The sun-damaged wheat flour was treated with Surface Dielectric Barrier Discharge using atmospheric air cold plasma at different application times. The results demonstrated that sedimentation volumes increased with longer plasma treatment times and maximized in 60 seconds of treatment without causing any sunn pest damage. The alveograph tenacity (P) increased with plasma application, and as a result, the energy (W) reached approximately three times that of the application of 60 s. The values obtained for W and gluten balance (P/L) indicated that the dough's qualities were now appropriate for resulting in bread. Significance of the study • Atmospheric air cold plasma was applied to sunn pest-damaged wheat flour to improve the technological quality at three application times • Sedimentation volumes increased a level that did not cause any sunn pest-damage in 60 s of treatment • Plasma application increased the alveograph tenacity (P) • The alveograph energy (W) value reached aproximately three times in the application of 60 s. • The alveograph W and gluten balance (P/L) values of the dough became suitable for bread-making

Predicting wheat flour quality for making Japanese sponge cake using flour pasting properties as measured by the Rapid Visco Analyzer

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to evaluate a series of Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) methods for their ability to produce results that were predictive of Japanese sponge cake (JSC) quality. Two solvents (water and 50% [w/w] sucrose in water) and two temperature profiles [Standard 1 (STD 1) and an internal cake temperature profile] were selected to run across a diverse set of flour samples from two crop years that possessed variable bake performance. The results were analyzed for predictive outcomes for JSC prepared using a mechanical fold method.FindingsThe solvent retention capacity (SRC) results did not show any significant trends with JSC quality. The RVA results from both profiles using water as the solvent did not show a significant correlation with JSC quality while the 50% (w/w) sucrose solvent was significantly correlated (p ≤ .01). The STD 1 and internal cake temperature profile batter pasting viscosity (BPV) using the sucrose solvent showed significant (p ≤ .01) correlations with mechanical folded JSC volume (r = .97), firmness (r = −.88), and overall score (r = .85).ConclusionsThe RVA BPV results showed that a 50% sucrose solvent could more accurately be used to predict and screen for JSC quality outcomes. Both RVA profiles could be used with a sucrose solvent to predict JSC quality. JSC volume and overall score showed significant positive correlations with BPV while firmness had a significant negative correlation.Significance and NoveltyThis research identified two RVA profiles that when paired with a 50% (w/w) sucrose solvent could be used to screen for JSC quality using less flour and taking less time than a bake test. This test could potentially assist breeders and millers in quicky screening flours for efficient decision making. This is the first time an RVA temperature profile that mimics the internal rise in temperature for a JSC during baking has been used to predict JSC quality. In addition, the STD 1 profile using the 50% (w/w) sucrose solvent has not been previously used to predict JSC quality.

Preserving wheat flour with cellulose nanocomposite packaging and cold plasma treatment: Eliminating fungal contamination and improving functionality

The main aim of the present study was to produce uncontaminated flour that preserves its quality without undergoing any alterations. The present study investigated the effects of cold plasma treatment, carboxymethyl cellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/nanoclay (CMC/PVA/nanoclay—CPN) packaging, and the combined treatment of cold plasma and cellulose nanocomposite packaging on wheat flour's shelf life and quality during storage. Our findings strongly suggest that the synergistic application of cold plasma treatment and CPN packaging holds remarkable potential for the complete decontamination of A. flavus. In terms of wheat flour functionality, our results highlight the superior performance of the combined approach of cold plasma treatment and CPN packaging when compared to their individual utilization and the control group. However, it should be noted that there appears to be a decline in the preservation of wheat flour quality during storage. A. flavus was effectively eradicated from flour samples through plasma treatment at 12 and 15 kV voltage levels. However, this treatment had notable effects on dry and wet gluten and starch compositions. Our results suggest combining CPN packaging with cold plasma treatment is viable for extending wheat flour's gluten and starch content during storage. Treatment B, with 10 kV applied for 7 min, and Treatment C, with 10 kV applied for 10 min, exhibit positive preservation results. The above findings contribute to understanding and advancing techniques to effectively preserve flour-based culinary products' quality and nutritional value.

Prediction Of Raman Spectra and Adulteration Concentration of Wheat Flour Based on Neural Network Modelling

In order to quickly detect the adulteration of flour containing wheat flour quality testing, the Raman spectrum of wheat flour as the object of study, based on a number of data-based neural network to identify and determine the concentration of wheat adulteration. Firstly, the neural network system in this study borrowed the Raman wave number and Raman intensity curve from "Non-contact Detection of Benzoyl Peroxide in Flour Based on Raman Spectroscopy" as the training and testing set. Next, we created the neural network, set the training parameters, trained the network and simulated the test. Finally, the supervised learning process resulted in error analysis and comparison of results, and the Raman spectra of wheat flour and adulteration concentration were plotted visually.

The Impact of a Six-Hour Light-Dark Cycle on Wheat Ear Emergence, Grain Yield, and Flour Quality in Future Plant-Growing Systems.

Cultivating wheat (Triticum aestivum) in a closed environment offers applications in both indoor farming and in outer-space farming. Tailoring the photoperiod holds potential to shorten the growth cycle, thereby increasing the annual number of cycles. As wheat is a long-day plant, a night shorter than a critical length is required to induce flowering. In growth chambers, experiments were conducted to examine the impact of a 6 h light-dark cycle on the timing of wheat ear emergence, grain yield, and flour quality. Under equal daily light-integral conditions, the 6 h light-dark cycle promoted growth and development, resulting in accelerated ear emergence when compared to a 12 h cycle, additionally indicating that 12 h of darkness was excessive. To further stimulate heading and increase yield, the 6 h cycle was changed at the onset of stem elongation to a 14 h-10 h, mimicking spring conditions, and maintained until maturity. This successful transition was then combined with two levels of light intensity and nutrient solution, which did not significantly impact yield, while tillering and grain ripening did increase under higher light intensities. Moreover, it enabled manipulation of the baking quality, although lower-end falling numbers were observed. In conclusion, combining a 6 h light-dark cycle until stem elongation with a 14 h-10 h cycle presents a promising strategy for increasing future wheat production in closed environments. The observation of low falling numbers underscores the importance of factoring in flour quality when designing the wheat-growing systems of the future.

The Baking Quality of Wheat Flour (Triticum aestivum L.) Obtained from Wheat Grains Cultivated in Various Farming Systems (Organic vs. Integrated vs. Conventional)

The quality of flour is influenced by various factors including genotype, environmental and agronomic conditions, post-harvest grain storage, and milling technology. Currently, the EU focuses on reducing mineral fertilization and promoting less intensive agrotechnology (organic and integrated farming). This research aimed to assess the baking value of flour obtained from four spring wheat cultivars cultivated in three farming systems: organic (ORG), integrated (INT), and conventional (CONV). The wheat grains were sourced from a three-year field experiment (2019–2021) conducted at IUNG-PIB in Pulawy, Poland. Results indicate that the CONV generally yielded more favourable qualitative parameters for the flour, including significantly higher protein content, wet gluten, falling number, and farinographic characteristics such as dough development, stability time, and quality number. Nevertheless, most flours from the ORG system met the quality requirements for the baking industry, showing adequate protein content, wet gluten, and falling number. However, flours from the INT system stood out due to significantly higher water absorption, resulting in increased dough and bread yield. Additionally, bread baked from these flours exhibited a significantly higher bread volume. In sensory evaluation, bread from CONV flours received the highest scores, although the differences in the overall acceptability were not significant.

Prediction models to evaluate baking quality instruments for commercial wheat flour

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesLoaf volume is the main indicator of wheat flour quality, but test baking has major limitations. Here, prediction models were used to evaluate which methodology best captured the baking quality in Swedish commercial wheat flour and if the chemical composition of flour increased prediction accuracy.FindingsFlour type (e.g., winter vs. spring wheat) affected prediction model results significantly. Thus, separate prediction models should be developed for each flour type. Combining data from alveograph, farinograph, and glutomatic tests with protein and damaged starch gave the best prediction results. The main loaf volume predictors were dough strength for winter wheat, stability for spring wheat, and extensibility for flour blends. The composition of protein and arabinoxylan influenced several quality parameters but did not improve loaf volume predictions.ConclusionsBest predictions were obtained for winter wheat. Spring wheat and flour blend models contained only one latent variable, indicating that protein content was the main determinant for loaf volume in these samples.Significance and NoveltyThis study is one of few using prediction models to evaluate instrument suitability to determine loaf volume. Instruments suitable for predicting quality were determined for commercial winter wheat flour, which is the main product of Swedish mills.

Using the GlutoPeak Tester in Determining the Quality Characteristics of Some Bread Wheat Varieties

The aim of this study is to determine the physical, chemical and technological, rheological properties of 10 registered bread wheat varieties developed by Bahri Dağdaş International Agricultural Research Institute and their quality status in bread analyzes and GutoPeak analyzes. At the same time, it is aimed to investigate the relationships between physical, chemical, technological, rheological and bread analyzes with GlutoPeak quality parameters and to reveal the potentials of the varieties. In the study, some quality parameters and significance levels between varieties were determined. Also, the results obtained from the GlutoPeak analysis are explained by comparing them with other quality parameters. Protein ratio, wet gluten and Zeleny sedimentation values were found to be highly correlated with GlutoPeak AM, BEM, AGGRE, PM, GPRT, GW and GWA. In addition, it was determined that there was a high correlation between farinograph water absorption and GlutoPeak AGGRE, AM, BEM, GGLT, GPRT, GW, GWA and PM values. Alveograph W value was positively correlated with GlutoPeak AM, BEM, PM, GPRT, GGLT, GW, GWA and AGGRE values and negatively correlated with PMT. The results obtained in terms of the examined characteristics in this study show that some varieties stand out in terms of different quality characteristics. With the results of this study, it was determined that the GlutoPeak device can detect the quality of wheat flour with less sample and in a short time, therefore, GlutoPeak analysis will be useful in variety development and similar studies in bread wheat.

Relationship between the baking quality of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and the protein composition and structure after shading

Although wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain protein content is increased by shade stress, the relationship between the baking quality of wheat flour and protein composition and structure remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of shade stress on wheat flour protein composition and structure. The contents of the flour protein, α/β-gliadins and disulfide and hydrogen bonds were significantly increased by shade stress. Glutenins, UPP%, and β-sheet contents also increased, whereas that of α-helices decreased. Spearman correlations revealed that the flour protein content, Glu:Gli ratio, and disulfide, hydrogen, and ionic bonds can predict the specific volume and number of crumb cells in bread, whereas α/β-gliadins content can predict the crumb cell wall thickness and diameter of bread. Under shade stress, variations in protein composition and structure help increase the specific volume and crumb cells number and decrease crumb cell wall thickness and diameter of bread, ultimately leading to improved baking quality.

Effects of environmental temperature during maturation on protein characteristics in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Haruyokoi)

Wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Haruyokoi) gluten proteins are important contributors to wheat flour quality. Numerous studies have examined the effects of heat stress on gluten proteins. We clarified the relationship between growth temperature and the characteristics of storage proteins in spring wheat grown under mild conditions (<30 °C). As the growth temperature increased, crude protein content also increased and the activity of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), which is involved in the folding and transport of gluten proteins, decreased. The growth temperature also affected the amount of aggregated storage proteins, with an increase in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-insoluble proteins observed under high-temperature conditions. From these results, it was inferred that high growth temperatures caused an environment where nonspecific aggregation is likely to occur. The accumulation of specific proteins was also affected. The high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) Dx5 encoded by Glu-D1d allele, which has a marked impact on the viscoelastic properties of dough characteristics, showed high accumulation under high growth temperatures. These effects of growth temperature on storage proteins appear to affect the formation of glutenin macropolymer, which in turn affects the physical properties of the dough. As global warming continues, this study could provide helpful information for long-term predictions of wheat quality.

Effect of Packaging Type and Storage Time on the Quality of Wheat Flour

The wheat flour quality is influenced by several factors, including the packaging type used and the length of storage time. This research aims to determine the effect of packaging type (polypropylene and polyethylene) and storage time on the wheat flour quality at PT XYZ. The wheat flour quality described refers to SNI No. 01-3751-2018, including water content, ash content, protein content, and organoleptic properties. The research results show that the packaging type and storage time affect the wheat flour quality. The analysis results show that wheat flour produced and packaged using polypropylene and polyethylene with variations in storage time shows a real influence on the wheat flour quality. The analysis results showed that the smallest water content in polyethylene packaging was 13.28% with a storage time of 21 days, the smallest ash content in the polypropylene packaging type was 0.56% with a storage time of 9 days, and the highest protein content was 15.24% in the polypropylene packaging type with a storage time of 14 days. Meanwhile, the analysis of organoleptic properties including color tests and aroma tests did not have a significant effect on the wheat flour quality.