Wheat Ethanol Research Articles

Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas implications of mid-level ethanol blend deployment in Canada's light-duty fleet

Replacing conventional gasoline with mid-level ethanol blends (15–30% ethanol by volume) can reduce fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions but require vehicle compatibility. This study quantifies the changes in fuel volumes and well-to-wheel (WTW) GHG emissions associated with potential mid-level ethanol blend deployment in Canada's light-duty vehicle fleet from 2018 to 2030. We develop a Canadian fleet model that projects the number of vehicles by vehicle technology and production year from 2015 to 2030, their fuel blend compatibilities, and their annual fuel use, considering the potential effects of ethanol blend level on vehicle fuel consumption and associated GHG emissions. The results show that the deployment of low and mid-level ethanol blends, such as E10, E15 or E25, could reduce petroleum gasoline use by 12% in 2030, while tripling ethanol use, from 2.6 to 7.2 billion liters annually. Incorporating emission factors from the GHGenius model suggests that mid-level blends can reduce fleet WTW GHG emissions in 2030 by 7.2% assuming the use of corn and wheat ethanol, and by up to 13.4% assuming cellulosic ethanol. The octane enhancing effect of ethanol is responsible for up to 30% of the reductions. Achieving the above reductions would require coordination among vehicle manufacturers, refiners and policymakers. Overall, mid-level blends can materially reduce GHG emissions of the Canadian light-duty fleet, but represent less than 1/5 of the reductions required for the light-duty fleet to achieve emissions that are 30% below 2005 levels (Canada's pledge under the Paris Agreement).

Screening of bacterial and fungal strains for cellulase and xylanase production using distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS) as the main feedstock

Bioenergy is one of the most promising solutions for the environmental problems of using non-renewable energy resources. Bioethanol is a form of bioenergy produced from food crops, such as corn, wheat, and sugarcane. Distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is the by-product of corn and wheat ethanol production in the dry mill process and has a high nutritional profile. The undigested carbohydrate components in DDGS and proteins can be utilized as the feedstock to produce microbial cellulases and xylanases as the value-added products. Currently, several bacterial and fungal strains are used to produce such enzymes by using expensive feedstocks for commercial preparations. In this study, several bacterial and fungal strains have been evaluated to explore the potential of hydrolyzed DDGS as the main feedstock for these hydrolytic enzymes production. Maximum cellulase production of 0.592 IU/ml was observed for Aspergillus niger (NRRL 1956) on the eighteenth day and stable high production of xylanase of 34.8 IU/ml was obtained for Aspergillus niger (NRRL 567) on day twelfth during shake-flask fermentation. Hydrolytic enzyme production by Bacillus subtilis (NRRL NSR352, DSM 17766, and NF1) was relatively lower (0–0.261 IU/ml for cellulase and 1.2–5.2 IU/ml for xylanase) than the fungal enzyme production. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that hydrolyzed DDGS can be an alternative economical substrate for A. niger strains to produce cellulase and xylanase, respectively. The next phases of the study should further optimize the production of cellulase and xylanase in terms of growth parameters and medium components by using bench-top bioreactors.

Integrated processing of sugarcane bagasse: Arabinoxylan extraction integrated with ethanol production

A proof-of-concept project compared extraction of arabinoxylans (AX) from sugarcane bagasse and wheat bran via alkaline hydrogen peroxide followed by enzyme-assisted extraction with combinations of feruloyl esterases and a xylanase. Bagasse contains comparable amounts of AX to wheat bran, but with a much lower arabinoxylan substitution on the xylan backbone (A:X ratio of around 0.2 compared with 0.6 for wheat bran), hence offering AX products with distinctive functionality and potential end uses. In the current work, bagasse released its AX more readily than wheat bran, and released a wider range of molecular weights. Use of feruloyl esterase and xylanase enzymes on their own or following alkaline peroxide extraction did not enhance AX release substantially; however, the xylanase appeared to be effective at reducing the size of AX molecules, and there is scope to optimise the effects of enzymes to produce specific AX product fractions. As bagasse frequently arises within the context of bioethanol production, integration of AX extraction with ethanol production could allow economic production of a portfolio of AX products, as has been demonstrated in principle for AX co-production in a wheat ethanol plant.

Effect of soil disinfection with chemical and biological methods on bacterial communities

Little is known about the effect of soil disinfection on bacterial communities. Soils were treated with an effective chemical fumigant chloropicrin and biofumigant mustard greens (Brassica juncea). While mustard greens did not affect the soil bacterial community structures very much, chloropicrin greatly reduced soil biomass and bacterial species richness. Chloropicrin also influenced the bacterial community structure, making the phylum Firmicutes dominant by occupying about 75%. In more than two months, the proportion of Firmicutes was reduced to the basal level, and the phyla Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria became dominant. Since mustard greens worked as carbon sources for soil reduction, soils were treated with wheat bran and a low concentration of ethanol. Soil reduction with wheat bran and ethanol did not influence the soil bacterial community structures. Beta diversity analyzed by Principal Coordinate Analysis showed that bacterial communities in the soils except chloropicrin-applied soils formed a cluster. All together, biofumigant mustard greens, a probable substitute for chloropicrin, were demonstrated to cause much less damage on soil bacterial community than chemical chloropicrin.

The feasibility of short‐term production strategies for renewable jet fuels – a comprehensive techno‐economic comparison

AbstractThis study compares the short‐term economic feasibility of six conversion pathways for renewable jet fuel (RJF) production. The assessment combines (i) a harmonized techno‐economic analysis of conversion pathways expected to be certified for use in commercial aviation by 2020, (ii) a pioneer plant analysis taking into account technological immaturity, and (iii) a quantified assessment of the merits of co‐producing RJF alongside existing European supply chains in the pulp, wheat ethanol, and beet sugar industries. None of the pathways assessed are able to reach price parity with petroleum‐derived jet fuel in the short term. The pioneer plant analysis suggests that the hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) pathway is currently the best option; the technology achieves the lowest minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of 29.3 € GJ−1 (1289 € t−1) and the technology is deployed on commercial scale already. In the short term, nth plant analysis shows hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) and pyrolysis emerging as promising alternatives, yielding MFSPs of 21.4 € GJ−1 (939 € t−1) and 30.2 € GJ−1 (1326 € t−1), respectively. The pioneer plant analysis shows considerable MFSP increases for producing drop‐in fuels using HTL and pyrolysis as both technologies are relatively immature. Hence, further RD&D efforts into these pathways are recommended. Co‐production strategies decrease the MFSP by 4–8% compared to greenfield production. Integration of process units and material and energy flows is expected to lead to further cost reductions. As such, co‐production can be a particularly useful strategy to progress emerging technologies to commercial scale. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Environmental assessment of biofuel pathways in Ile de France based on ecosystem modeling

The objective of the work reported here was to reduce the uncertainty on the greenhouse gas balances of biofuels using agro-ecosystem modeling at a high resolution over the Ile-de-France region in Northern France. The emissions simulated during the feedstock production stage were input to a life-cycle assessment of candidate biofuel pathways: bioethanol from wheat, sugar-beet and miscanthus, and biodiesel from oilseed rape. Compared to the widely-used methodology based on fixed emission factors, ecosystem modeling lead to 55-70% lower estimates for N2O emissions, emphasizing the importance of regional factors. The life-cycle GHG emissions of first-generation biofuels were 50-70% lower than fossil-based equivalents, and 85% lower for cellulosic ethanol. When including indirect land-use change effects, GHG savings became marginal for biodiesel and wheat ethanol, but were positive due to direct effects for cellulosic ethanol.

Quantifying the uncertainties in life cycle greenhouse gas emissions for UK wheat ethanol

Biofuels are increasingly promoted worldwide as a means for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport. However, current regulatory frameworks and most academic life cycle analyses adopt a deterministic approach in determining the GHG intensities of biofuels and thus ignore the inherent risk associated with biofuel production. This study aims to develop a transparent stochastic method for evaluating UK biofuels that determines both the magnitude and uncertainty of GHG intensity on the basis of current industry practices. Using wheat ethanol as a case study, we show that the GHG intensity could span a range of 40–110 gCO2e MJ−1 when land use change (LUC) emissions and various sources of uncertainty are taken into account, as compared with a regulatory default value of 44 gCO2e MJ−1. This suggests that the current deterministic regulatory framework underestimates wheat ethanol GHG intensity and thus may not be effective in evaluating transport fuels. Uncertainties in determining the GHG intensity of UK wheat ethanol include limitations of available data at a localized scale, and significant scientific uncertainty of parameters such as soil N2O and LUC emissions. Biofuel polices should be robust enough to incorporate the currently irreducible uncertainties and flexible enough to be readily revised when better science is available.

Development of plant concepts for ethanol production from wheat and wheat straw

Fuel ethanol produced from sugar and starch is to be complemented and eventually even replaced by ethanol produced from lignocellulose, in order to mitigate possible competition with the food sector. A first step towards this goal may be a combination of both feedstocks in one plant. This is topic of the presented study, whether synergies in lowering the production costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be reached through combined processing was topic of the presented study. A greenfield straw ethanol plant, a wheat ethanol plant and an integrated plant, processing both wheat grain and straw were developed and compared regarding the resulting GHG emissions and production costs. Despite showing the best results with regard to greenhouse gas emissions, greenfield straw ethanol production is related to relatively high production costs. The wheat based ethanol plant again is associated with higher GHG emissions, but low production costs. By combining straw and wheat processing, resulting production costs of EUR651/m3 ethanol are at a level close to market prices, but the same mitigation potential as separate straw based ethanol cannot be reached. The low level of 16.1 g CO2-eq/MJ of straw based ethanol results mainly from the use of the agricultural residue as feedstock and the use of the internally produced lignin to ensure the steam supply. In the assessment of the production costs, feedstock costs are one of the most relevant parameters. Since straw prices are not available from market statistics, an assessment of Germany’s sustainable straw potential in a high spatial resolution has served to calculate straw supply costs. Depending on the exact location of the plant, a range of EUR50/t to EUR90/t (fresh matter) was found to be the cost for straw provision.

Lignocellulolytic Enzyme Activity of New Corticoid and Poroid Basidiomycetes Isolated from Latvian Cultural Monuments

Eleven corticoid and three poroid fungi have been isolated from Latvian cultural monuments and evaluated for their potential to produce wood-degrading enzymes. In submerged fermentation of mandarin peels, notable intergeneric and intrageneric differences were revealed with regard to the extent of hydrolase and oxidase activity. The xylanase activity of the tested basidiomycetes varied from 0.1 to 2.4 U/mL depending on the fungus species, while that among the strains of Athelia neuhoffii varied from 0.1 to 1.3 U/mL. Five strains of white-rot fungi produced neither laccase nor manganese peroxidases. Cellulase and xylanase of Hyphoderma praetermissum and Tubulicrinis glebulosus appeared to be inducible enzymes. Lignocellulosic substrates strongly affected the enzyme production, because the laccase of H. praetermissum and T. glebulosus was secreted only in the submerged fermentation on mandarin peels and wheat bran, whereas the production of manganese peroxidase by Hypochnicium punctulatum and Phellinus chrisoloma was observed only in the solid-state fermentation of wheat bran and ethanol production residue.

Environmental and economic assessment of international ethanol trade options for the German transport sector

Abstract In this study an environmental and economic assessment of the trade of fuel ethanol (EtOH) from Brazil (sugarcane), United States (corn) and France (wheat and sugar beet) has been performed. The fuel is supposed to be consumed in Germany. The focus of the work lies on the transportation of fuel ethanol. The anhydrous ethanol from Brazil requires 3.48 GJ m −3 of fossil energy input for its production and transport to Cologne, whereas the USA supply from corn delivered to the same location would consume 17.1 GJ m −3 and the wheat and sugar beet derived ethanol from France would consume 10.6 GJ m −3 . The energy ratio (renewable energy output/fossil energy input) resulted in 7.3 for Brazilian, 1.24 for the USA and 1.99 for French ethanol including production and transport to Cologne. The carbon dioxide equivalent emissions is 491 kg m −3 of sugarcane ethanol from Brazil, 1,243 kg m −3 of corn ethanol from USA and 729 kg m −3 of sugar beet and 744 kg m −3 of wheat ethanol from France. The final cost of ethanol from Brazil in Cologne was 510 € m −3 at 2006 prices, while ethanol from the US is available for a cost of 636 € m −3 . The costs of wheat and sugar beet ethanol from France are 568 € m −3 and 595 € m −3 respectively (2006 prices). The results show that the transport to Germany has only a limited impact on total fossil energy consumption, GHG emissions and costs.

Impact of environmental factors to wheat ethanol production in the conditions of Central Europe

Wheat with its advantages of high yield stability, well-mastered crop management and the possibility of long-term storage is suitable for ethanol production. Ethanol production has to be cost-effective and, therefore, wheat used in production should have a high potential for ethanol production. Previous works showed that low-nitrogen grain content is important for the relative ethanol yield and the agronomic yield for the absolute ethanol yield per area is important. In this work, importance of grain nitrogen and starch content for ethanol conversion efficiency was verified. Furthermore, environmental effects in relation to the ethanol conversion efficiency and ethanol yield in conditions of Central Europe were studied. With regard to the environmental factors, the annual rainfall sum was found to be the most important factor for ethanol conversion efficiency, while the grain yield was found to be the most important factor for the ethanol yield. On the basis of these findings it can be considered that wheat varieties possessing high yields of low protein grain planted in areas with higher rainfall amount would be ideal for the production of ethanol.

Emergy analysis of cassava-based fuel ethanol in China

Emergy analysis considers both energy quality and energy used in the past, and compensates for the inability of money to value non-market inputs in an objective manner. Its common unit allows all resources to be compared on a fair basis. As feedstock for fuel ethanol, cassava has some advantages over other feedstocks. The production system of cassava-based fuel ethanol (CFE) was evaluated by emergy analysis. The emergy indices for the system of cassava-based fuel ethanol (CFE) are as follows: transformity is 1.10 E + 5 sej/J, EYR is 1.07, ELR is 2.55, RER is 0.28, and ESI is 0.42. Compared with the emergy indices of wheat ethanol and corn ethanol, CFE is the most sustainable. CFE is a good alternative to substitute for oil in China. Non-renewable purchased emergy accounts for 71.15% of the whole input emergy. The dependence on non-renewable energy increases environmental degradation, making the system less sustainable relative to systems more dependent on renewable energies. For sustainable development, it is vital to reduce the consumption of non-renewable energy in the production of CFE.

Energy security policies in EU-25—The expected cost of oil supply disruptions

A framework for analyzing the impact on the expected cost of oil disruption by energy policies in EU-25 is developed. The framework takes into account how energy policies affect the oil market, the expected oil price increase, and the disruption costs. OPEC's strategic behavior is modelled as a dominant firm, and the model includes price interdependence between different energy commodities to better estimate the cost of an oil disruption. It is found that substituting pellets for oil in households and using imported sugar cane ethanol are cost-efficient policies if greenhouse gas benefits are included. Domestically produced wheat ethanol is not found to be cost-efficient even if both the expected cost of oil disruption and greenhouse gas benefits are included, the same also holds for hybrid vehicles. The gross expected economic gain of the policies is found to be between 9 and 22 €/bbl oil replaced.

Contribution of N2O to the greenhouse gas balance of first‐generation biofuels

AbstractIn this study, we analyze the impact of fertilizer‐ and manure‐induced N2O emissions due to energy crop production on the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions when conventional transportation fuels are replaced by first‐generation biofuels (also taking account of other GHG emissions during the entire life cycle). We calculate the nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions by applying a statistical model that uses spatial data on climate and soil. For the land use that is assumed to be replaced by energy crop production (the ‘reference land‐use system’), we explore a variety of options, the most important of which are cropland for food production, grassland, and natural vegetation. Calculations are also done in the case that emissions due to energy crop production are fully additional and thus no reference is considered. The results are combined with data on other emissions due to biofuels production that are derived from existing studies, resulting in total GHG emission reduction potentials for major biofuels compared with conventional fuels. The results show that N2O emissions can have an important impact on the overall GHG balance of biofuels, though there are large uncertainties. The most important ones are those in the statistical model and the GHG emissions not related to land use. Ethanol produced from sugar cane and sugar beet are relatively robust GHG savers: these biofuels change the GHG emissions by −103% to −60% (sugar cane) and −58% to −17% (sugar beet), compared with conventional transportation fuels and depending on the reference land‐use system that is considered. The use of diesel from palm fruit also results in a relatively constant and substantial change of the GHG emissions by −75% to −39%. For corn and wheat ethanol, the figures are −38% to 11% and −107% to 53%, respectively. Rapeseed diesel changes the GHG emissions by −81% to 72% and soybean diesel by −111% to 44%. Optimized crop management, which involves the use of state‐of‐the‐art agricultural technologies combined with an optimized fertilization regime and the use of nitrification inhibitors, can reduce N2O emissions substantially and change the GHG emissions by up to −135 percent points (pp) compared with conventional management. However, the uncertainties in the statistical N2O emission model and in the data on non‐land‐use GHG emissions due to biofuels production are large; they can change the GHG emission reduction by between −152 and 87 pp.

Self-sufficiency of motor fuels on organic farms – Evaluation of systems based on fuels produced in industrial-scale plants

The aim of the present work was to evaluate systems for making organic farms self-sufficient in bio-based fuels. The energy efficiency and environmental load for systems based on rape methyl ester (RME), ethanol and biogas produced by processing raw material from the farm in industrial-scale plants were evaluated using a life cycle perspective. Eventual constraints when implementing the systems in practice were also identified and the farmer’s costs for the systems estimated. The RME scenario showed some good characteristics; the energy efficiency and potential effects on global warming were favourable, the technology well known and no engine modifications were necessary. However, the high price of the organically produced rapeseed made the fuel expensive. The ethanol scenario provided fuel at a comparatively low cost, but the energy efficiency was low and existing engines would have to be modified. The biogas scenario was not as economically advantageous, due to high costs for storage and transport of the biogas and the extensive tractor modifications needed. The calculations further showed that systems based on so-called exchange of fuels, i.e. when the farm produces raw material for one type of biofuel, but instead uses another type of biofuel more suitable for its own tractors, were an economically favourable way of supplying the organic farms with ‘self-produced’ bio-based fuels. The exchange scenario based on delivery of organic wheat to a large-scale plant and use of RME at the farm was somewhat more expensive than scenarios based on production of biogas raw material at the farm. However, the wheat/RME system has the advantage of being possible to put into practice immediately, since industrial-scale wheat ethanol plants are in operation and RME fuel is available on the market.

Evaluation of coeliac disease serological markers in Down syndrome patients

Background. The increased incidence of coeliac disease in patients with Down syndrome makes screening of coeliac disease in this population advisable. Aim. Evaluation of efficiency of different serological markers to detect coeliac disease in Down syndrome patients. Patients. A total of 56 Down syndrome patients (aged: 1–17 years) were included in study. Methods. Patients were evaluated for both IgG and IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and for anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibodies using either purified ω-gliadin, wheat ethanol extract or commercial gliadin. Patients who had at least one positive result were evaluated for anti-endomysium antibodies using either monkey oesophagus or human umbilical cord by indirect immunofluorescence. Coeliac disease was diagnosed by typical histological changes on duodenal mucosa. Results. Increased levels of at least one anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody marker were found in 27 out of 56 cases (26 for IgG and 9 for IgA). 11 56 were positive for IgG anti-transglutaminase antibodies and two of them were also positive for IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and anti-endomysium antibodies. These two patients were finally diagnosed as coeliacs. Gliadin antigenic fractions employed produced differences in the performance of the anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody test. The use of commercial gliadin or wheat ethanol extract showed low sensitivity in IgA anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody determination, whereas good sensitivity and specificity were observed with ω-gliadins. IgG anti-transglutaminase antibodies showed a high proportion of false positive results (9 out of 56), whereas anti-endomysium antibodies and IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies presented an excellent correlation with presence of active coeliac disease. Conclusions. Two out of 56 Down syndrome patients were diagnosed as coeliacs, corresponding to an incidence of 3.6%. The use of ω-gliadin presented the best efficiency in anti-gliadin IgA and IgG antibody determination whereas IgA anti-transglutaminase antibodies and anti-endomysium antibody determination showed an absolute correlation with presence of active coeliac disease.

Low input wheat management techniques are more efficient in ethanol production

The aim of this survey is to design new crop management techniques for the production of a biofuel, wheat ethanol. As ethanol production fits into a very particular context (low price for farmers, aimed improvement of competitiveness and consideration of the environmental and energy balances) there is no reason to believe that food wheat crop management techniques are suitable for use in ethanol wheat. Two approaches were used to design the new techniques: A simulation approach, based on simple agronomic models, built by agronomists and suited to our study region, the chalky Champagne (France) and an on-farm experimental approach involving eight trials. The two approaches showed that low input management systems were the best suited to ethanol production: Improving the gross margin by 400 Fr/ha and reducing the cost per ton by 100 Fr/t in comparison with the reference crop management techniques for food wheat. They did not improve the energy balance because of their lack of productivity but did limit nitrate and pesticide pollution risks.