Wetlands In India Research Articles

Land use and land cover dynamics in the Upper Ganga Riverine Wetland: unraveling ecosystem services over two decades.

Anthropogenic activities have drastically transformed natural landscapes, profoundly impacting land use and land cover (LULC) and, consequently, the provision and functionality of ecosystem service values (ESVs). Evaluating the changes in LULC and their influence on ESVs is imperative to protect ecologically fragile ecosystems from degradation. This study focuses on a highly sensitive Upper Ganga riverine wetland in India, covering Hapur, Amroha, Bulandshahr, and Sambhal districts, which is well-known for its significant endemic flora and fauna. The study analyzes the subtle variability in ecosystem services offered by the various LULC biomes, including riverine wetland, built-up, cropland, forest, sandbar, and unused land. LULC classification is carried out using Landsat satellite imagery 5 and 8 for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, using the random forest method. The spatiotemporal changing pattern of ESVs is assessed utilizing the value transfer method with two distinct value coefficients: global value coefficients (C14) for a worldwide perspective and modified local value coefficients X08 for a more specific local context. The results show a significant increase in built-up and unused land, with a corresponding decrease in wetlands and forests from 2000 to 2020. The combined ESVs for all the districts are worth US $5072 million (C14) and US $2139 million (X08) in the year 2000, which declined to US $4510 million (C14) and US $1770 million (X08) in the year 2020. The sensitivity analysis reveals that the coefficient of sensitivity (CS) is below one for all biomes, suggesting the robustness of the employed value coefficients in estimating ESVs. Moreover, the analysis identifies cropland, followed by forests and wetlands, as the LULC biomes most responsive to changes. This research provides crucial insights to stakeholders and policymakers for developing sustainable land management practices aimed at enhancing the ecological worth of the Upper Ganga Riverine Wetland.

Algal Diversity and their Ecology in Pariyapurath Chali, a wetland in Ramanattukara Municipality, Kozhikode, Kerala

Wetlands are one of the important ecosystems which contribute much to primary productivity and atmospheric oxygen. Algal diversity and their ecological role in Pariyapurath Chali were studied. Standard methods for collection, identification and preservation were followed, and their importance in the ecosystem were noted. A total of 52 samples were collected, of which 65 taxa were identified. These taxa belonged to 4 classes; Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Cyanophyceae. The occurrence of cyanobacteria was high in the study site, the non-hetrocystous cyanobacteria were more frequent in all the sampling sites especially in the soil with high nitrogen and organic content. This contribution increases the taxonomic knowledge of Indian wetland algae.

Stakeholder engagement in advancing sustainable ecotourism: an exploratory case study of Chilika Wetland

Ecotourism, over time, has emerged as a preferred strategy for resource utilization within protected areas of developing nations, as it effectively bridges the gap between ecological conservation imperatives and the imperative for local economic development. This study aims to comprehensively analyze the multifaceted impacts of ecotourism on local communities, with due consideration given to its environmental, social, and economic dimensions. Furthermore, the research endeavors to evaluate the degree of stakeholder engagement in fostering sustainable tourism practices within ecotourism initiatives. Thematic content analysis has been used and the data for the analysis has been sourced through field observations, key informant discussions and different secondary sources. This research examines the dynamic interaction between local communities and ecotourism aspects in the Chilika Wetland in India, using the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework. It promotes a comprehensive decision-making method that considers the Triple Bottom Line and Community-oriented Collaborative approach. Findings underscore the potential for Chilika’s ecosystem restoration and mitigating adverse tourist impacts with effective ecotourism governance. The need for collaboration among stakeholders becomes crucial for the effective administration of ecotourism, as shown by the instance of Mangalajodi, which exemplifies the successful outcome of community-led ecotourism. Nevertheless, certain prerequisites, such as knowledge dissemination, training, financial support, cultural promotion, eco-friendly infrastructure, and a commitment to conservation, have been recognized as necessary for ensuring long-term community involvement in ecotourism initiatives.

Evaluating the future risk of coastal Ramsar wetlands in India to extreme rainfalls using fuzzy logic

Wetlands are often found in areas that undergo periodic flooding, such as coastal seas, lakes, and rivers. Coastal wetlands are particularly vulnerable to climate change effects, such as changes in precipitation patterns, risk of extreme rainfall, and cyclones/storms. This study assessed the uncertainties associated with extreme rainfalls in terms of return levels (RLs; 20 and 50 years) and quantified the potential risk level of these events in the future for coastal wetlands in India. The extreme precipitation indices (EPIs) were evaluated using a non-stationary approach, and the results showed that Thane Creek had the highest RLs, followed by Kolleru Lake. The risk level for each wetland was assessed using the fuzzy logic approach, which considered parameters such as exposure, vulnerability, and threat. The overall risk assessment showed that Thane Creek, Kolleru Lake, Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest, and Tampara Lake are at a “High” risk level for both RLs of EPIs. Furthermore, the automated Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) thresholding technique was employed in Google Earth Engine to create inundation maps of wetlands. This study also indicated that Thane Creek is at risk of flooding based on the analysis of spatiotemporal changes. The impact evaluation of Thane Creek showed that rapid urbanization has encroached upon the creek's boundaries. Therefore, the variability of EPIs may be affected by climatic oscillations, leading to an upsurge in extreme rainfalls, causing the coastal wetlands to flood. Policymakers can use these findings to develop effective strategies for the proper management of coastal wetlands.

Bio-Inclusive Urban Ecosystems and their Conservation - A Review

This article dives into the usage of nature in cities to solve today's problems. This research focuses on the systematic conservation of urban wildlife. How the cities can be interlinked with the wildlife and the current scenarios which happen in the present condition of the cities. We deal with classification of the urban ecosystem and also the new habitats for the wildlife population and the factors that affect the same. The six main areas in which urban wildlife management challenges now exist are also covered. We get the chance to study more about the new term of synurbization and the factors and conditions for the same and some examples also. Further, the research focuses on the habitat management techniques and the examples happening in different areas in the world.Another major topic which is dealt in this study is the wetlands of India. Wetlands of kerala are also studied along with their respective policies and strategies for the protection of wetlands. National strategy for wetland protection and the methods used for the monitoring and protection of wetlands are also included.Human activities and human interventions are the major factors that contribute to the depletion of wildlife and the wetlands therefore habitat conservation is also dealt with in this study. This study helps us to understand the importance of protection and prevention of wildlife in urban areas and the conservation of wildlife in different zones of our cities and urges us to understand the factors responsible for the urban development without affecting the ecosystem.

Effects of Water Quality on Birds at Singanallur Lake, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Wetlands in India are seriously threatened by pollution due to rapid urbanization, industrial activities and unsustainable agricultural practices. The water quality of an urban lake is a key concern. A survey by line transects and point count method were conducted around Singanallur lake, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. The surface water samples were collected in sterile containers from the inlets and outlets of Singanallur lake between 2009 and 2011 and the physicochemical parameters, nutrient properties and heavy metals were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. The pH value consistently appears to be above 7, indicating the alkaline nature of the water. Total suspended solids, total solids and total dissolved solids were exceeded the WHO permissible limit. Among the metals analyzed, copper was found to be the most prevalent at a concentration of 39.4 µg/ml. Stepwise linear regression (R = - 0.87) shows a strong negative relationship, suggesting that as the pollution load index (PLI) increases, the bird population correspondingly decreases. Specifically, the PLI was recorded at 4.5 in 2009 and had risen to 8.43 by 2011. The high PLI adversely affects the abundance and health of aquatic organisms, which serve as primary food sources for many bird species. The poor water quality of the surface water due to anthropogenic pressures in Singanallur lake gives out a serious warning, highlighting the urgent need to conserve the fragile ecosystem.

Heavy metals in wetlands of southwestern India: from sediments through invertebrates to migratory shorebirds

Heavy metal pollution in Indian wetlands is rising due to industrial, agricultural and urban development activities. Shorebirds occupy upper trophic levels and are therefore especially vulnerable to heavy metal pollution. We evaluated the concentration of heavy metals (zinc, copper, cobalt, chromium, lead and cadmium) in 22 common species of migrant shorebirds (220 shorebird dropping samples) with diverse foraging behaviors, in their different prey (55 prey samples) and in the sediments (90 sediment samples) in different habitat types (mudflats, mangroves and sand beaches) between 2019 and 2021. Further, we analyzed a total of 10 biofilm samples from mudflats and mangroves. We detected relatively low concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments (Zn concentration range: 9.11–40.91 mg/kg; Cu: 5.74–21.38 mg/kg; Co: 2.00–4.04 mg/kg; Cr: 4.05–41.03 mg/kg; Pb: 1.02–7.19 mg/kg; Cd: 0.56–4.35 mg/kg). However, we measured relatively high concentrations of heavy metals in invertebrate prey species (Zn concentration range: 84.72–224.74 mg/kg; Cu: 26.63–170.36 mg/kg; Co: 13.98–14.42 mg/kg; Cr: 14.78–98.16 mg/kg; Pb: 18.95–157.29 mg/kg; Cd: 9.33–60.56 mg/kg). In addition, we found high concentrations of heavy metals in shorebird droppings (Zn concentration range: 41.33–58.8 mg/kg; Cu: 31.42–52.11 mg/kg; Co: 36.34–55.68 mg/kg; Cr: 52.3–68.21 mg/kg; Pb: 25.94–43.13 mg/kg; Cd: 5.53–16.4 mg/kg). It is evident that concentration of heavy metals increased successively moving from sediment to prey to shorebird species, likely through trophic transfer. The biofilm samples contained very high concentrations of Cr, Pb and Cd (22.64, 28.09 and 18.46 mg/kg respectively) which could be harmful to biofilm grazing shorebirds. Since bioaccumulation of heavy metals entail risks in living species, we suggest that increasing concentrations may detrimentally affect physiological processes in invertebrates and shorebirds. There is an urgent need to identify the sources of pollution and to reduce the discharge of heavy metals and other pollutants into coastal and inland wetlands.

Unveiling the Marvels of Indian Wetlands: Distribution, Ecological Importance, Challenges, and Conservation

Comparable to tropical evergreen forests or coral reefs, wetland ecosystems are among the most dynamic and productive ecosystems on the planet. A region's dynamism may have a substantial impact on its ecological sustainability. Exploring the distribution, range, categorization, ecological functions, biological variety, and dangers to India's wetland diversity is the goal of this article. The management of irrigation water, groundwater, fisheries, non-timber forest products, water supply, recreation, and pollution control through carbon sequestration, flood control, nutrient cycles are just a few of the essential ecological services that wetlands typically provide for sustainable development in many areas. However, the growing anthropogenic activity in and around the wetlands put them under ongoing stress, which is seen as a reduction in area and has a severe impact on their hydrological, ecological, and economic functions. Wetlands are one of the most imperilled ecosystems due to the global decline in their number. India has 75 wetlands that are currently recognised as Ramsar sites, with a total coverage of roughly 1.09 million hectares and an estimated 757.06 thousand wetlands, making up around 4.7% of the total land area. India has the most wetlands in South Asia, and it sustains nearly a fifth of the region's total biodiversity. Unfortunately, between 35–60% of India's wetlands have been lost over the course of the last 40 years, necessitating the creation of new conservation techniques and a rethinking of the laws governing their protection.

Nexus of household livelihood dependence and conservation approach to wetlands: a study of North Himalayan wetland in India

Nexus of household livelihood dependence and conservation approach to wetlands: a study of North Himalayan wetland in India

Assessment of environmental and carcinogenic health hazards from heavy metal contamination in sediments of wetlands

Sediment contamination jeopardizes wetlands by harming aquatic organisms, disrupting food webs, and reducing biodiversity. Carcinogenic substances like heavy metals bioaccumulate in sediments and expose consumers to a greater risk of cancer. This study reports Pb, Cr, Cu, and Zn levels in sediments from eight wetlands in India. The Pb (51.25 ± 4.46 µg/g) and Cr (266 ± 6.95 µg/g) concentrations were highest in Hirakud, Cu (34.27 ± 2.2 µg/g) in Bhadrak, and Zn (55.45 ± 2.93 µg/g) in Koraput. The mean Pb, Cr, and Cu values in sediments exceeded the toxicity reference value. The contamination factor for Cr was the highest of the four metals studied at Hirakud (CF = 7.60) and Talcher (CF = 6.97). Furthermore, high and moderate positive correlations were observed between Cu and Zn (r = 0.77) and Pb and Cr (r = 0.36), respectively, across all sites. Cancer patients were found to be more concentrated in areas with higher concentrations of Pb and Cr, which are more carcinogenic. The link between heavy metals in wetland sediments and human cancer could be used to make policies that limit people's exposure to heavy metals and protect their health.

Occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (OCPs, PCBs, and PAHs) in surface sediments of the Ashtamudi wetland, south-west coast of India

Monitoring heavy metals (HM) and persistent organic pollutants (POP) has become more important recently, as they pose serious threats to tropical aquatic ecosystems. The Ashtamudi wetland a Ramsar Site in the southwest coast of India must be monitored due to the intense urbanisation and anthropogenic activities that occur in the nearby areas of this wetland. This study aims to identify potential sources of POPs (OCPs, PCBs, and PAHs) and HM in the surface sediments of Ashtamudi wetland, as well as to assess their ecological risk. The enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (CD),geo-accumulation index (Igeo), pollution load index (PLI), and sediment quality guidelines (SQG) were used as pollution indices. The average concentrations of HM were Iron (39582.52 mg/kg) > manganese (365.92 mg/kg) > Zinc (91.39 mg/kg) > nickel (49.36 mg/kg) > Copper (31.47 mg/kg) > lead (21.21 mg/kg) > Cadmium (0.73 mg/kg). The concentrations of HM detected during the study were on par with or even higher than the other coastal systems. Several areas of the Ashtamudi wetland are extremely enriched and moderately to considerably contaminated with cadmium (EF and CF indices). Nickel exceeds the ERM (Effects Range Median) in some sampling stations. The Ashtamudi wetland has not been seriously contaminated by organochlorine pesticides (2.03 to 2.45 μg/kg) and polychlorinated biphenyls (0.26 to 0.35 μg/kg). Sediments are moderately contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (202.81–158.23 μg/kg) from urban emission sources of Kollam. These results can be used as a reference point for future research on organic contaminants in Indian wetlands and highlight the need for effective controls of micro pollutants.

Do Aquaculture and Ornamental Fish Culturing Sites Act as a Bridgehead for Alien Fish Invasion in Indian Wetlands? A Review

Do Aquaculture and Ornamental Fish Culturing Sites Act as a Bridgehead for Alien Fish Invasion in Indian Wetlands? A Review

Valuation and effective management of the Dal Lake's diverse ecosystem using choice experiment method

AbstractThis study estimates economic values of changes in variegated ecological, social and economic attributes of dominant environmental resource (viz., Dal Lake), proffers to its key stakeholders through choice experiment design selecting relevant attributes for better management. In addition to the conditional logit model, the random logit model and the random logit model with interactions are calculated to account for the heterogeneity of the public prospects for the different purposes of the wetland. Willingness to pay for the selected attributes like preservation of wetland biodiversity turned out to be ₹18.47 ($0.26), improvement in wetland area ₹13.62 ($0.19) and enhancement of research and development estimated to be ₹15.87 ($0.23) per month in the form of increased monthly water rates. Aggregate willingness to pay for the improvement in all the selected attributes turned out to be ₹104,957,309 ($1,490,870). The findings of this study will guide the environmentalists and policymakers to formulate economically optimal strategies for the sustainable maintenance of Dal Lake, with future consequences for other related wetlands in India and the rest of South Asia.

Length‐weight relationships of 12 dominant fish species from a Ramsar Wetland in India: Vembanad Lake

AbstractThe present study describes the length‐weight relationships (LWRs) of 12 dominant finfish species from Vembanad Lake, India, from June 2015 to May 2016. Samples were carried out using a wide range of fishing gears such as gill nets (mesh sizes 20–60 mm), seine nets (mesh sizes 8–16 mm), cast nets (mesh sizes 6–8 mm) and hook and lines. The values of the exponent b ranged from 2.506 (Glossogobius giuris) to 3.305 (Heteropneustes fossilis) and regression parameters R2 from .960 (Carinotetraodon travancoricus) to .995 (G. giuris). The study reports the new maximum total length (TLmax) for Hyporhamphus xanthopterus and first reference regarding length‐weight relationships for Mystus oculatus, Ompok malabaricus and C. travancoricus. The results provide useful information for preparing sustainable resource management plans and conservation strategies for these species in the lake and similar ecosystems.

To a charismatic rescue: Designing a blueprint to steer Fishing Cat conservation for safeguarding Indian wetlands

Wetland conservation in the Indo-tropics can benefit from the protection of the charismatic Fishing Cat. India, supporting ∼ 40% of its known range, is a stronghold for the species. Here, using multiple information sources we outline a framework to safeguard fishing cats in India. Specifically, we a) estimated district-level Conservation priority scores (using presence records, and habitat suitability and habitat connectivity) to identify ecologically important habitats, b) estimated state-level Conservation likelihood scores assessing the success potential of any conservation intervention, c) collated district-level Conservation initiative information identifying ongoing efforts for species and/or habitat conservation. We consecutively assessed the spatial congruence between (a), (b) and (c) to delineate species’ conservation areas and corresponding action goals (blueprint). Using information on habitat suitability, we also delineated survey landscapes. Although Fishing Cat records were found in 12 Indian states, only a small proportion of the state area was identified harbouring optimal habitat for the species. Three broad habitat clusters - Terai arc, Eastern coast, and Brahmaputra floodplains - were identified, with overall high habitat connectivity. Most districts ranking high in Conservation priority scored low in Conservation likelihood. Districts with Fishing Cat presence (n = 60) were delineated into four tiers of action landscapes and the majority of districts classified as survey landscapes (n = 156) were found in the Terai arc. We use our results to recommend and discuss conservation actions for districts identified in our blueprint. Flagship species conservation approach has substantial potential to enrich wetland conservation, for which our blueprint can act as a baseline.

Molecular identification, whole-cell protein profiling, antibiotics sensitivity and pathogenicity of Chryseobacterium gleum recovered from diseased fishes of freshwater wetlands in India

Globally, bacterial gill disease is one of the most prominent bacterial diseases affecting both marine and freshwater fishes. This study aimed to investigate diseased Labeo rohita, Labeo catla and Oreochromis niloticus with gill discoloration, tail rot and skin ulcer that resembles the typical sign of bacterial gill disease from East Kolkata Wetlands, India. The results revealed that four isolates of Chryseobacterium gleum were the responsible pathogens. The isolates CIFRI-RRM3, CIFRI-BFG2, CIFRI-SRM4 and CIFRI-TRM5 were identified using bacterial colony morphology, biochemical test, whole-cell protein profiling, 16S rRNA gene amplification and nucleotide sequence analysis. The antibiotic susceptibility assay showed that all the isolates were completely resistant to ampicillin, amoxyclav, cefalexin, cephalothin, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cefotaxime, cefuroxime, cefadroxil, chloramphenicol, kanamycin, netilmicin, penicillin-G, ticarcillin, tobramycin, erythromycin and tetracycline. A challenge experiment was also conducted for four isolates with intraperitoneal injection at a dose of 2.5 × 1010 CFU mL−1 to 4.2 × 1010 CFU mL−1in respective fish hosts. Only three isolates (CIFRI-BFG2, CIFRI-RRM3 and CIFRI-TRM5) proved their virulence by producing diseases with mild symptoms of skin lesions, gill disease and cumulative mortality of 10–20%. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first description of the phenotypic, molecular and whole-cell protein profiling of C. gleum derived from freshwater fishes in India.

Wetlands of India with Reference to Ecosystem Wealth, Threats and Management

India has an unusual wealth of wetland ecosystems. Wetlands are established as passages between land and water ecosystem. They donate versatile benefits, especially in the field of the ecosystem, economy and scenic beauty. They are fertile ecosystems that help elective and special biodiversity and habitats and famous for their divergent welfares and courtesies. These ecosystems do not only enhance agricultural impacts on the environment but also provide ecosystem benefits to human society and are under prodigious stress due to industrial pollution, agricultural and urbanization, tourism and fisheries and many more. The present review is focused on the value of wetlands, providing distribution of wetlands and major threats to wetland. It also provides information on how a series of works had been done to save this vulnerable ecosystem.

Response of long- to short-term tidal inlet morphodynamics on the ecological ramification of Chilika lake, the tropical Ramsar wetland in India

The long- to short-term morphodynamic response in low-lying coastal wetlands raises serious concerns worldwide about the loss of their biodiversity and ecological ramifications due to change in tidal amplitude and cyclonic events. One such place worth studying is Chilika lake, India, a prominent Ramsar site, the largest brackish water lagoon in Asia, and the second-largest coastal lagoon in the world. It experiences frequent cyclone landfalls and strong littoral drift that tends to open/close the tidal inlet. The goal of this study was to analyze the response of slow onset events such as long- (1952–2020) to short-term (~annual scale from 1989 to 2020) tidal inlet movement, shoreline change (1990–2020 with almost every five-year interval), spit morphodynamics (~annual scale from 1989 to 2020) on ecological ramification in Chilika lake as well as the implications of sudden onset event such as cyclonic landfall. In this study, we used the Digital Shoreline Change Analysis System (DSAS) to compute the statistics of shoreline change rate by calculating end point rate (EPR) values for short-term shoreline change (1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2011, 2016, and 2020) and weighted linear regression (WLR) for long-term shoreline change (1990–2020). The results show that Chilika lake experienced both erosion and accretion processes with a remarkably high erosion rate of 19.87 m year−1 and accretion of 16.91 m year−1 during a long-term scale (1990–2020). The average erosion and accretion rates were 2.25 m year−1 and 4.67 m year−1, respectively, during the past three decades (1990–2020). The short-term analysis suggests that the highest mean erosion of 4.37 m year−1 occurred during 2005–2011, mainly due to cyclonic storms, reduction in sediment discharge, and lunar eclipse, which induced tide with very high amplitude in August 2008. Overall, the annual scale analysis of tidal inlet shows a shifting trend towards the northward side even after the artificial opening of an inlet in 2000. It can be ascribed mainly to the prevalent direction of longshore drift along this coast. This study observed that the landfall of cyclones significantly affects the spit morphodynamics and opening of the tidal inlet, which defines the inflow of the seawater into the lagoon and further substantial impacts on the ecological ramification. The current study's methodology can be extended to comprehend the response of long- to short-term changes of the tidal inlet, shoreline, and spit morphodynamics on the ecological ramification of coastal lagoons worldwide along with impacts of sudden-onset events caused by cyclonic landfall.

Identification and molecular characterization of H9N2 viruses carrying multiple mammalian adaptation markers in resident birds in central-western wetlands in India.

We report here a targeted risk-based study to investigate the presence of influenza A viruses at the migratory-wild-domestic bird interface across the major wetlands of central India's Maharashtra state during the winter migration season. The H9N2 viruses have been isolated and confirmed in 3.86% (33/854) of the fecal samples of resident birds. To investigate the genetic pools of H9N2 circulating in resident birds, we sequenced two isolates of H9N2 from distant wetlands. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses have shown that these viruses are triple reassortants, with HA, NA, NP, and M genes belonging to G1 sub-lineage (A/quail/Hong Kong/G1/1997), PB2, PB1, and NS genes originating from the prototype Eurasian lineage (A/mallard/France/090360/2009) and PA gene deriving from Y439/Korean-like (A/duck/Hong Kong/Y439/97) sub-lineage. It was confirmed not only that four of their gene segments had a high genetic association with the zoonotic H9N2 virus, A/Human/India/TCM2581/2019, but also that they had many molecular markers associated with mammalian adaptation and enhanced virulence in mammals including the unique multiple basic amino acids, KSKR↓GLF at the HA cleavage site, and analog N-and O-glycosylation patterns on HA with that of the zoonotic H9N2 virus. Furthermore, future experiments would be to characterize these isolates biologically to address the public health concern. Importantly, due to the identification of these viruses at a strategic geographical location in India (a major stop-over point in the Central Asian flyway), these novel viruses also pose a possible threat to be exported to other regions via migratory/resident birds. Consequently, systematic investigation and active monitoring are a prerequisite for identifying and preventing the spread of viruses of zoonotic potential by enforcing strict biosecurity measures.

Wetlands Ecosystem: A Sensitive Landscape of Unorganized Nonadministered Serveces.

The association of man and wetlands is ancient, with the first signs of civilization originating in wetland habitats such as the flood plains of the Indus, the Nile Delta and the Fertile Crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Evidence of the first wetland traces back to the Ordovician Period (485.4 million to 443.8 million years ago), As much 17.56% of the state’s geographic area (34.74 lakh hectares) has been identified as wetland/waterbodies in the National Wetland Atlas of the Union ministery of environment and forests. A total of 15.26 million hectares have been identified as wetland in India. Gujarat is followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Maharashtra in the order. Even the coastal Union territories of Diu and Daman have upto 18.46% of their total geographical area as wetland, next only to Lakshadweep whose 96.12% of land area is wetland. India has totally 27, 403 wetlands/water bodies, of which 23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal wetlands. According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989), wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area (excluding rivers), of which 70 % are under paddy cultivation. In India, out of an estimated 4.1 million hectares (MHa) (excluding irrigated agricultural lands, rivers and streams) of wetlands, 1.5 MHa are natural, while 2.6 MHa are manmade. To declare any water bodies as wetland, it is manditorily be notified by the Central Government, State Government and Union Territory Administration under the Wetland Rules 2017.Presently there are 41 Ramsar notified wetlands in the country. There is no notified wetlands/ Ramsar wetlands in Karnataka as on date. There is need of hour to introduce panel provisions with Institutional authority in the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017. Also, provisions for constitution of district level authority shall be made under the Rules with adequate powers for administration, management, development and conservation. Else, there could be more meaningful, if instead Rules, an Act should be promulgated on the lines of Forest (Conservation) Act 1980.