Wet Tillage Research Articles

Tillage after irrigation decreases soil N2O but increases CO2 emissions in a rice-wheat rotation system

Increasing attention is paid to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through improvement in agricultural practices. Tillage after irrigation (Wet tillage; WT) can shift soil structure compared with tillage before irrigation (Dry tillage; DT), associated with GHG emissions, while information is limited on the effects of WT on nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). A two-year field experiment was conducted to assess the effects of the sequence between tillage and irrigation (i.e., WT and DT) on soil methane (CH4), N2O, and CO2 emissions and the underlying mechanisms in a rice-wheat rotation system. The results showed that WT significantly decreased cumulative N2O emissions from the jointing to maturity stage due to a lower abundance of nirS and nirK genes at booting stages, leading to a decrease of 35.1 %–42.6 % for cumulative N2O emissions under WT throughout the whole rice-growing stage (P < 0.05). However, WT increased cumulative CO2 emissions from the jointing to maturity stage due to disturbance for soil aggregation with lower mean weight diameter and geometric mean diameter, resulting in an increase of 18.3 %–19.1 % for cumulative CO2 emissions throughout the whole rice-growing period (P < 0.05) compared with DT. WT had a minor effect on methane (CH4) emissions and rice yield and decreased GHG intensity only in the first year. Our results highlight a trade-off between N2O and CO2 emissions under WT, and a strategic rotation between WT and DT may be a clean practice to sustain the irrespective benefits of WT and DT.

Methane emission under straw return is mitigated by tillage types depending on crop growth stages in a wheat-rotated rice farming system

Straw return (SR) is a recommended management practice to improve soil fertility, but often increases methane (CH4) emissions from rice paddies. Tillage type (before or after irrigation) will change the contact surface between soil and straw, as well as soil structure, but little is known about how tillage type affects CH4 emission under SR from rice fields. A field experiment using split-plot design (straw as main plot and tillage type as subplot) was conducted to quantify the interactive effects of SR and tillage type on CH4 emission from transplanting to jointing, jointing to booting, and booting to maturity stages of rice in 2018 and 2019 and its underlying mechanisms. The results showed that SR significantly increased CH4 emission throughout the rice growing season by 58.8% due to enhanced methanogenic activity compared with straw removal (S0). Cumulative CH4 emission from transplanting to booting stage accounts for 95% of that from the whole rice growth season. Dry tillage (tillage before irrigation, -W) mitigates CH4 emission under SR from transplanting to jointing stage due to lower mcrA abundance compared with wet tillage (tillage after irrigation, +W). However, +W mitigates CH4 emission from jointing to booting stage in the absence of significant interaction between straw and tillage type through improved soil aggregation and higher carbon accumulation compared with -W. Overall, S0 +W had lower CH4 emission by 18.3%− 36.5%, 42.9%− 52.7%, and 44.0%− 48.6% than S0-W, SR-W, and SR+W, respectively (P < 0.0.5). Our results emphasize the importance of adjusting paddy tillage method in mitigating CH4 emission boosted by straw incorporation.

Survey of rice production practices and perception of weedy red rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) in Taiwan – ERRATUM

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the primary staple crop in Taiwan, and it can be grown twice a year. The prevalent subspecies grown in Taiwan is Japonica, and a transplanting system is used for rice production. Although the transplanting system is known for efficient weed control at the seedling stage, weedy red rice (WRR, O. sativa f. spontanea) infestation is progressively being reported. Fieldwork and previous studies have suggested that WRR infestation in Taiwan is probably related to growers' operating practices and their perception of WRR. However, no data are available for a detailed investigation. The present study aimed to collect data on rice growers' backgrounds, farming practices, and perceptions of WRR to quantify and characterize the patterns of farming operations for rice growers in Taiwan and to investigate factors contributing to WRR infestation. We collected 408 questionnaires completed by rice growers from 17 counties covering all rice production regions in Taiwan. The growers' median age was 51 to 60 yr, and 75% of respondents had paddies from 0.25 to 2.75 ha in size, which corresponded with nationwide data for farmers' backgrounds. In general, growers applied similar farming practices for both cropping seasons. Most respondents did not notice WRR infestation or consider it to be a problem: only 9.8% noticed a moderate to severe infestation of WRR in their fields. The major perceived causes of WRR infestation was seed impurity (55.1%) or cultivar degeneration (18.6%). Correlation analysis and farming patterns estimated with a nonnegative matrix factorization algorithm showed that WRR contamination rate was due to the use of dry or wet tillage. The present study provides the first quantitative and qualitative evidence of rice production practices and growers' perceptions of WRR infestation in Taiwan.

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Rice–wheat system in the northwest Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia: issues and technological interventions for increasing productivity and sustainability

Puddled transplanted rice (Oryza sativa L.) followed by intensively tilled wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (R–W) is the most predominant cropping system and the lifeline for billions of people in South Asia. The cultivation of R–W system requires high amounts of water, nutrients and energy, resulting in increased production costs and increased emissions of greenhouse gases. There are also increasing concerns of yield stagnation or decline in the R–W system, with increasing environmental footprints. Hence, the sustainability of the R–W system in South Asia, particularly in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGPs), has been questioned and heavily debated. Based on the findings from peer-reviewed literature, this review aims to identify unsustainability issues and research gaps in the R–W system and propose possible solutions to mitigate those issues and technological interventions to close the research gaps. Among the unsustainability issues that the review has identified are declining crop, water and land productivity, deterioration of soil health, emissions of greenhouse gases due to intensive tillage and residue burning, deepening of groundwater levels and shift in weed flora and development of herbicidal resistance in crops. Potential solutions or technological interventions to mitigate the unsustainability issues include resource conservation technologies (RCTs) such as rice residue management, reduced tillage, laser land leveling, soil matric potential based irrigation scheduling, delayed rice transplanting, cultivation on permanent raised beds, direct-seeded rice (DSR), mechanical transplanting of rice and crop diversification with legumes. These interventions have the potential to reduce energy, water and carbon (C) footprints from the R–W system. Rice residue retention with Happy Seeder and adoption of zero tillage (ZT) for wheat establishment have significantly lowered the environmental footprints, with increased soil C sequestration due to additions of large amounts of plant-mediated C input. Residue mulching has helped increase root length of wheat by ~25% and root length density by ~40% below 15 cm depth, compared to no mulching. The Happy Seeder saved ~30% of irrigation water due to reduction of soil evaporation by ~42–48 mm through residue mulching. Crop cultivation on permanent raised beds is less energy-intensive and results in ~7.8–22.7% higher water use efficiency yet crop productivity in long run could be affected due to reduced root growth on beds. The puddled transplanted rice (PTR) established under wet tillage, however, can decrease the water percolation losses by 14–16% and crop water demand by ~10–25%, and it forms hard pan in soil plough (7–10 cm) layer due to increased soil bulk density. Water stagnation under continuously flooded PTR is the major source of methane emissions with serious environmental implications. Methane emissions from flooded rice can increase global warming potential by 18.1–27.6% compared to intermittently flooded rice with multiple aerations. The conventional tillage can favor the germination of grassy weeds in wheat, while the broad-leaved weeds increase under zero tillage. Zero tillage with mulch load conserved ~4.0% higher moisture due to ~2.3% lesser soil temperature and evaporated ~27.6% lesser than the conventional tillage. Delayed rice transplanting with short-duration variety has potential of saving of up to ~140 mm of irrigation water in the semiarid areas of NW IGPs. Although the DSR had lower yield potential than the PTR, it saved ~50% irrigation water. The laser land leveling technology saved ~30% irrigation water and ~25% electricity and had a yield advantage of ~4%, compared with PTR on un-leveled fields. The mechanical transplanted rice had higher grain yield and more water saving than the manual transplanting or DSR. The review demonstrates that a single technology may not be applicable everywhere and integrated approaches with the multiple criteria—productivity, economics, energy and environmental sustainability—would be required to address the unsustainability issues of the R–W system of the NW IGPs. There is a need to elucidate and disseminate various site- and context-specific RCTs appropriate for the region to address the unsustainability issues and challenges of the system. Sustainable R–W production technologies with reduced water, energy and C footprints are required for increased water and energy productivity and C sequestration for the NW IGPs of South Asia.

Puddled and zero-till unpuddled transplanted rice are each best suited to different environments – An example from two diverse locations in the Eastern Gangetic Plains of Bangladesh

Abstract Rice is predominantly grown on puddled soils (puddling is achieved through wet tillage in ponded water to create a soft soil environment and impermeable sub-soil layer) in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) of Bangladesh. Puddling is often discouraged while practicing conservation agriculture (CA) to achieve maximum system benefit. Zero-till unpuddled transplanted rice (ZT UPTR) could be a good substitute for puddled transplanted rice (PTR) as it possesses all the benefits to fit in a CA-based system. However, the performance of ZT UPTR might vary in different soil types and environments. The nitrogen (N) fertilizer management might also vary for different rice establishment methods and irrigation management. Therefore, two replicated field experiments were conducted in two diverse sites in the EGP, with significant variation in soil type and agro-climatic conditions. Three rice establishment methods – PTR, ZT UPTR, and rainfed ZT UPTR (ZT RUPTR) were compared in the main plots and three N rates (0, 45, and 90 kg ha−1, representing zero, half, and full recommended doses) were allocated in the sub-plots. We found that the recommended N management for both PTR and ZT UPTR was similar at both the sites, although the relative performance was different between the two different environments. In silt loam soil, the ZT UPTR performed equally or better than PTR (similar in the first season, a slight gain in grain yield in the second season). However, in sandy loam soil, the ZT UPTR performed slightly inferior to PTR (similar in the first season, lower grain yield in the second season). More water (about 564 mm) was required for growing ZT UPTR than PTR in the second season at the sandy loam site due to increased percolation rate in ZT UPTR caused by the cessation of puddling. Grain yield of ZT RUPTR was slightly lower (by 0.2 t ha−1) but statistically similar to PTR and ZT UPTR in both seasons in the silt loam soil, but significantly lower grain yield (by 1.5 t ha−1) in the first season and crop failure in the second season in the sandy loam soil. Therefore, ZT UPTR could be a feasible option in fine-textured soils for the establishment of rice in a CA-based system while its feasibility for coarse-textured soils seems limited and requires further study.

Trade-off with tillage, irrigation schedules and novel rice establishment methods implications on soil properties and plant biomass nitrogen chemistry

Global food security depends on the continued success of rice production. Though rice production has shown a consistent increase, it faces major challenges: The increasing demand for rice versus declining growth in yield and harvested area; soil fertility and productivity decline of intensive rice-based cropping systems resulted from depletion and or limitations of natural resources (soil and water) for rice production. Therefore a field study was conducted for three seasons on a clay loam soil in karnataka, India during Kharif season (2015 & 2016), Rabi season (2015) to investigate the trade-off with tillage, irrigation schedules and novel rice establishment methods implications on soil properties and plant biomass chemistry. Tillage treatments were Dry (No puddling) and wet tillage (puddling), Establishment methods were Direct seeding (DSR, WSR) and Transplanting (NPTR, PTR), Irrigation treatments were based on soil water tension (SWT) ranging from continuous flooding/saturation (daily irrigation) to alternate wetting and drying (AWD) with irrigation thresholds of 10 and 40 kPa at 18-20cm soil depth. The study reveals that among different establishment methods DSR and NPTR under dry tillage (non puddle) condition recorded higher available N, P and K (kg/ha). Higher Organic carbon (g/kg), low bulk density, less textural disturbance compared to WSR and PTR under wet tillage (puddled) conditions.

Survey of rice production practices and perception of weedy red rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) in Taiwan

AbstractRice (Oryza sativa L.) is the primary staple crop in Taiwan, and it can be grown twice a year. The prevalent subspecies grown in Taiwan is Japonica, and a transplanting system is used for rice production. Although the transplanting system is known for efficient weed control at the seedling stage, weedy red rice (WRR, O. sativa f. spontanea) infestation is progressively being reported. Fieldwork and previous studies have suggested that WRR infestation in Taiwan is probably related to growers’ operating practices and their perception of WRR. However, no data are available for a detailed investigation. The present study aimed to collect data on rice growers’ backgrounds, farming practices, and perceptions of WRR to quantify and characterize the patterns of farming operations for rice growers in Taiwan and to investigate factors contributing to WRR infestation. We collected 408 questionnaires completed by rice growers from 17 counties covering all rice production regions in Taiwan. The growers’ median age was 51 to 60 yr, and 75% of respondents had paddies from 0.25 to 2.75 ha in size, which corresponded with nationwide data for farmers’ backgrounds. In general, growers applied similar farming practices for both cropping seasons. Most respondents did not notice WRR infestation or consider it to be a problem: only 9.8% noticed a moderate to severe infestation of WRR in their fields. The major perceived causes of WRR infestation was seed impurity (55.1%) or cultivar degeneration (18.6%). Correlation analysis and farming patterns estimated with a nonnegative matrix factorization algorithm showed that WRR contamination rate was due to the use of dry or wet tillage. The present study provides the first quantitative and qualitative evidence of rice production practices and growers’ perceptions of WRR infestation in Taiwan.

Soil water contents for tillage: A comparison of approaches and consequences for the number of workable days

We propose the soil strength and air capacity (SSAC) approach, which was compared with alternative water retention curve (WRC) and the soil consistency (SC) approaches for estimating the water content at wet tillage limit (θWTL), optimum water content for tillage (θOPT) and the water content at the dry tillage limit (θDTL). Unlike the WRC and SC approaches, the SSAC approach uses a fixed value of air-filled porosity and tensile strength of soil aggregates to determine the wet and dry tillage limits: θWTL is estimated as soil water content at an air-filled porosity of 0.10 m3 m–3, and θDTL as soil water content at tensile strength of 50 kPa. The θOPT is estimated using the double-exponential model as soil water content at the local minimum of the pore size distribution between the peaks of the textural and structural pores. The three approaches were compared using soils from the Highfield long-term field experiment (UK) with a range of soil organic carbon (SOC, 0.009–0.033 kg kg–1), and soil from Lerbjerg (DK) with a range of clay contents (0.12–0.45 kg kg–1). Workable days for the soils in spring and autumn between 2014 and 2018 was estimated using a decision support tool for assessing soil workability. Workability was limited where soil conditions were either too wet (>θWTL) or too dry (<θDTL). For both Highfield and Lerbjerg soils, θWTL for the SC approach was generally drier than that for WRC and SSAC approaches. The number of workable days per season were influenced by SOC and clay contents. Soil with higher SOC had average of 36 and 23 workable days in the spring and the autumn, respectively, more than soil with low SOC. The number of workable days per season decreased with increasing clay content. Soil with lower clay had average of 21 and 25 workable days in the spring and the autumn, respectively, more than soil with high clay. The approach used for estimating θWTL and θDTL has impact on the number of workable days. For both soils studied, the number of workable days per season were more for WRC and SSAC approaches compared to the SC approach. While we believe the SSAC approach to be based on sound physical principles, further studies are needed to test the practical application of the SSAC approach for estimating θWTL, θDTL and workable days on more soils.

Exploring Optimal Tillage Improved Soil Characteristics and Productivity of Wheat Irrigated with Different Water Qualities

Irrigation with low water quality can adversely affect soil characteristics, optimal moisture for tillage, and crop productivity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. We determined the optimal moisture for tillage processing and the effects of optimal and wet tillage on physical and chemical soil characteristics and wheat productivity after irrigation with different water qualities (waste, saline, and highly saline water). We used the Atterberg limit to determine the suitable moisture content for tillage. Tillage at optimal moisture content improved soil characteristics by reducing soil salinity, sodicity, bulk density, shear strength, compaction, and increasing hydraulic conductivity compared to that of wet tillage. It also enhanced growth and productivity of wheat grown with low quality of water (i.e., fresh and waste water), resulting in higher grain yield and root weight at different growth stages than that of saline and highly saline water. In conclusion, tillage at optimal moisture content alleviates the impact of salinity through improving soil physical and chemical characteristics. Optimum tillage can be applied at 20 and 24 days from the previous irrigation in saline and highly saline soils, respectively. Irrigation with waste water resulted in a higher wheat grain yield than saline and highly saline water.

PERFORMANCE OF AUS RICE IN DIFFERENT TILLAGE SYSTEMS AND CROP ESTABLISHMENT METHOD IN SOUTHWEST BANGLADESH

High labor wage and irrigation water scarcity are the major constraints to becoming rice production less profitable and unsustainable in Bangladesh. To address these problems, rice production needed less water and less labor consuming production technologies. In traditional rice production systems which is puddled-transplanted rice (PTR), a significant amount of water and labor are used for tillage (wet) and transplanting operations. A farmers’ participatory on-farm trial was conducted to evaluate the performance of aus rice at different tillage systems and crop establishment methods in the southern part of Bangladesh. Wet tillage (puddled systems) to dry-tillage and transplanted rice to direct dry-seeded rice (DSR) may have the potential to reduce production cost by using less labor and water, resulting in higher profit. The trial examined tillage systems (strip tillage, reduced tillage and puddling) and crop establishment methods (direct dry-seeded and transplanted) in six farmers’ fields in aus 2015. Crop established by reduced-and strip-tillage in DSR conditions reduced crop duration by 7 d compared to PTR. Grain yield (4.4-4.6 t ha-1) was similar in DSR which is established by reduced-and strip-tillage conditions and PTR; however, total production cost in DSR was 15-18% lower than the PTR. Slightly higher but significantly similar gross income was recorded in PTR than DSR, however, net profit was significantly lower in PTR and it was due to higher production cost involvement. DSR has the potentiality of similar yield to PTR and reduces production cost which increases the net profit of rice production.

A global analysis of alternative tillage and crop establishment practices for economically and environmentally efficient rice production

Alternative tillage and rice establishment options should aim at less water and labor to produce similar or improved yields compared with traditional puddled-transplanted rice cultivation. The relative performance of these practices in terms of yield, water input, and economics varies across rice-growing regions. A global meta and mixed model analysis was performed, using a dataset involving 323 on-station and 9 on-farm studies (a total of 3878 paired data), to evaluate the yield, water input, greenhouse gas emissions, and cost and net return with five major tillage/crop establishment options. Shifting from transplanting to direct-seeding was advantageous but the change from conventional to zero or reduced tillage reduced yields. Direct-seeded rice under wet tillage was the best alternative with yield advantages of 1.3–4.7% (p < 0.05) and higher net economic return of 13% (p < 0.05), accompanied by savings of water by 15% (p < 0.05) and a reduction in cost by 2.4–8.8%. Direct-seeding under zero tillage was another potential alternative with high savings in water input and cost of cultivation, with no yield penalty. The alternative practices reduced methane emissions but increased nitrous oxide emissions. Soil texture plays a key role in relative yield advantages, and therefore refinement of the practice to suit a specific agro-ecosystem is needed.

Draftbility of Power Tiller with Different Lug Angle of Cage Wheels in Puddle Soils for Paddy

The experiment was conducted on IGKV research farm in wet puddle condition in April month of 2015. The wet tillage practice was carried out by power tiller cage wheel attached with five tines cultivator. Paddy production increases by puddling of soil before transplanting. Cage wheel is an important traction device for any prime mower. The lug is wing provided in cage wheels which interact with the wet soil to churn the soil. The cage wheel 730 mm diameter with 30°, 45°, and 60° lug angle and three different diameter of 73 mm, 680 mm and 780 mm of 30° was tested at 0 to 50 mm, 50 to 100 mm, 100 to 150 mm and 150 to 200 mm, depth of water level in wet land field. The result was found that cage wheel C1 of 30° lug angle with 730 mm diameter give better performance than other cage wheel. The cage wheel showed the best result in 50–100 mm water level in respect to maximum tractive efficiency was found in the range of 73−78% at 996 N to 1009 N draft and drawbar power was in the range of 478.08 W to 484.32 W. While maximum drawbar power was (523.16 to 555.28 W) was observed at 0 to 50 mm water level. Therefore cage wheel of 30° lug angle with 730 mm diameter was found suitable for wet land paddy field condition.

Effect of Conservation Tillage on Soil Chemical Properties in Rice-Maize Cropping System

Soil organic matter, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) nutrition of rice-maize cropping systems are important for sustaining crop productivity and food security. An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of tillage practices and residue retention on soil chemical properties in rice-maize cropping system. Conventional tillage, single pass wet tillage in rice (rotated with zero tillage in maize), bed planting (unpuddled rice transplanting) and strip tillage (unpuddled rice transplanting) in vertical plots and residue retention (0, 50 and 100%) in horizontal plot were tested for three consecutive years (2009-12). Rice was grown as transplanted irrigated crop and maize as upland crop. After third crop, strip tillage increased soil organic matter compared to bed and zero tillage at 0–7.5 cm soil depth. After three years, retention of crop residues, irrespective of tillage treatments, increased soil organic matter (SOM) at 7.5–15.0 cm soil depth. Tillage practices (puddled or unpudled) showed no significant changes in SOM. Neither tillage nor residue management had any significant effect on soil pH, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/agric.v13i2.26589The Agriculturists 2015; 13(2) 62-73

Conservation agriculture options for a Rice-Maize cropping systems in Bangladesh

Over the last two decades, Rice (Oryza sativa L.)-Maize (Zea mays L.) cropping systems have become one of the most dominant cropping systems in Bangladesh. This has coincided with the expansion in use of two-wheel tractors, which has facilitated options for minimum tillage. A three-year trial examined the prospects of conservation agriculture practices for Rice-Maize cropping in Bangladesh, with respect to minimum tillage and residue retention. Main plot tillage treatments of conventional full tillage, single pass wet tillage in rice (rotated with zero tillage in maize), bed planting and strip tillage were combined with residue retention treatments of 0, 50 and 100% in sub-plots. Compared to conventional tillage, minimum tillage saved 60-66% of fuel and 70-74% of labour required for land preparation. Although minimum tillage reduced the land preparation cost significantly through saving fuel and labour, weed infestation was higher compared to conventional tillage, which influenced the cost of production. Rice seedlings transplanted under unpuddled strip tillage required more time than in conventional or single pass wet tillage due to poor visibility of strips and the hard surface of untilled soil. Bed planting incurred the lowest production cost. Tillage methods and residue treatment produced no significant grain yield differences. Rice grown with single pass wet tillage and maize grown with strip tillage gave the highest gross margin over time. Despite lack of treatment effects on yields, the results suggest that profitability of Rice-Maize cropping could be increased with minimum tillage, provided there is adequate control of weeds by herbicides.Bangladesh Rice j. 2014, 18(1&amp;2): 44-53

Effect of Unpuddled Transplanting on the Growth and Yield of Dry Season Rice (&lt;i&gt;Oryza sativa&lt;/i&gt; L.) in High Barind Tract

Conservation tillage technology not only protects natural resources but also provides some economic leverage. The present investigation evaluated two puddle tillages (i) conventional tillage (CT) and (ii) single pass wet tillage (SPWT) and two unpuddled tillages(iii) strip tillage(ST) and (iv) bed planting (BP) to establish rice in the High Barind Tract, Godagari, Rajshahi during aus 2010 and boro 2011 season. The CT option incurred higher cost compared to other tillage treatments due to more fuel and labour used in land preparation. Minimum tillage (SPWT, ST and BP) saved about 30-54% fuel consumption and 40-49% labour requirement compared to CT in land preparation. Labour did not face much difficulty to transplant seedling in unpuddled fields. However, unpuddled establishment required more labor for weeding compared to puddle one. Bed planting in aus gave significantly lower grain yield than other establishment methods. However, in boro season, all the tested tillage methods produced similar yield. In both seasons, CT showed the highest input costs due to more number of tillage passes and fuel requirement in land preparation. As a consequence, SPWT, ST and BP appeared to be more profitable than CT both in aus and boro rice.The Agriculturists 2014; 12(2) 91-97

Integration of conservation agriculture with best management practices for improving system performance of the rice–wheat rotation in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of India

Cereal production systems in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains (E-IGP) are traditional, with low yield and low farm income, and they have largely missed out on the benefits of the Green Revolution. To enhance productivity, alleviate environmental and management constraints, and enhance farmers’ income in the rice–wheat cropping system of the E-IGP, new approaches that are more productive and sustainable need to be developed. Conservation agriculture (CA) together with best management practices (BMP) used in other parts of the IGP offer potential to be extended in the E-IGP. A study was conducted during 2009–2011 with the objective of evaluating a range of approaches for enhancing the productivity and economic returns of rice-wheat-based cropping systems in the E-IGP. Four scenarios (S) involving a range of crop and resource management practices with crop rotations (including legumesθ) were compared with one another, of which Scenario 1 represented farmers practice. The lowest yields of wheat (2.78–3.07tha−1) and rice (4.38–6.52tha−1) were recorded with the current farmers’ practices (S1), consisting of intensive tillage (wet tillage or puddling in rice and dry tillage in wheat) followed by inefficient crop establishment practices (transplanting in rice and broadcasting in wheat) with complete removal of crop residues. Avoiding tillage in wheat (S2) and including mungbean increased the yields of wheat and the succeeding rice crop by 21–31% and 5–10%, respectively. The yields of wheat and rice increased further by 46–54% and by 10–24%, respectively, with the inclusion of more CA components (S3). In S4, which was designed to include higher cropping intensity and diversification (potato and maize–rice–cowpea rotation) with CA components, 144–163% higher rice equivalent system productivity was attained. Irrigation water productivity in the winter season increased by 39–48% in S2, by 72–84% in S3, and by 137–138% in S4 when compared to S1 while in the rainy season it increased by 14–18% in S2, by 46–56% in S3, and by 71–88% in S4. S4 had the highest net returns ($2855–4193ha−1), followed by S3 ($1883–3246ha−1). However, the system’s highest benefit–cost ratio was recorded with S3 due to its lower cost of crop cultivation. The results of this study showed that there is enormous untapped potential to improve overall system performance through the adoption of CA in integration with BMP in the intensive system of the E-IGP of India.

Experiences with Rice Grown on Permanent Raised Beds: Effect of Crop Establishment Techniques on Water Use, Productivity, Profitability and Soil Physical Properties

In recent years, conventional rice production technologies have been leading to deterioration of soil health and declining farm profitability due to high inputs of water and labor. Conservation agriculture (CA) based resource-conserving technologies i.e. zero-tillage (ZT), raised-bed planting and direct-seeded rice (DSR) have shown promise as alternatives to conventional production technologies to overcome these problems. Present study was undertaken during 2009–2012 to establish an understanding of how permanent raised bed cropping system could be practiced to save water at the field application level to improve water productivity and also have the capability to enhance productivity, profitability and soil physical quality. The results showed that among different crop establishment techniques, conventional-tilled puddle transplanted rice (CT-TPR) required 14%?25% more water than other techniques. Compared with the CT-TPR system, zero till direct-seeded rice (ZT-DSR) consumed 6%–10% less water with almost equal system productivity and demonstrated higher water productivity. Wide raised beds saved about 15%–24% water and grain yield decrease of about 8%. Direct-seeded rice after ZT or reduced tillage or on unpuddled soil provided more net income than CT-TPR. The CT-TPR system had higher bulk density and penetration resistance due to compaction caused by the repeated wet tillage in rice. The steady-state infiltration rate and soil aggregation (> 0.25 mm) were higher under permanent beds and ZT and lower in the CT-TPR system. Under CT-TPR, soil aggregation was static across seasons, whereas it improved under no-till and permanent beds. Similarly, mean weight diameter of aggregates was higher under ZT and permanent beds and increased over time. The study reveals that to sustain the rice productivity, CA-based planting techniques can be more viable options. However, the long-term effects of these alternative technologies need to be studied under varying agro-ecologies in western Uttar Pradesh, India.

Organic Farming based Farming System and its role towards Sustainability

In India, 85 per cent total cropping systems are cereal-cereal e.g. rice-wheat (10.5 M ha.), rice-rice (6.0 M ha.), pearl millet - wheat (2.3 M ha), sorghum - wheat (2.3 M ha.), maize - wheat (1.9 M ha.) etc. These systems are very exhaustive in nature and removal of nutrients is much more than the replenishment and as result the productivity of different cropping systems is at plateau. In the Indo- Gangetic Plains which is considered as a food bowl of the country is also being affected on account of over exploitation of the natural resources. Since rice-wheat is the predominant cropping system and excessive wet tillage in rice cultivation has caused soil degradation problem and the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil are being affected which need to be rejuvenated. Therefore, it has become of utmost importance to conserve the natural resources by following organic farming based farming system approach. The water conservation is an integral component of this approach and a function of soil property largely determine the infiltration rate and soil depth partially control the amount of water stored in the soil. For higher water intake, soil surface has to be covered by mulching material or inter cropping so that surface sealing and crusting do not occur. Shallow tillage increases the soil surface roughness that helps in cutting runoff. Soil cover and addition of organic matter increases the soil moisture storage and ultimately soil health. There is an urgent need to do follow the natural farming or zero budget farming by making use of the resources available at the farm itself. The use of bio-fertilizers, bio-dynamics formulations, recycling of crop residue, crop rotation, application of green manuring, farm yard manure, extracts of herbs, following bhumi sanskar, beej sanskar, use of bio agents not only would reduce the cost of production but simultaneously make the ecosystem more vibrant by making a choice of the various plantation crops based farming system. Likewise vegetable, poultry, mushroom/rabitary/piggrey/fishery based farming systems to make the production system productive, profitable and sustainable over a longer period of time.

Comparison for Effect of Wet Tillage System with Conventional Tillage on Growth and Yield of Two Rice Cultivars (Amber 33 and Jasmine) Cultivated with Different Methods

Comparison for Effect of Wet Tillage System with Conventional Tillage on Growth and Yield of Two Rice Cultivars (Amber 33 and Jasmine) Cultivated with Different Methods