Western Zhou Dynasty Research Articles

A Studying the Music, Dance, and Performance Styles in Shi Jing-Feng

Background and Aim: Shi jing, the earliest collection of poetry in ancient China, collects 305 poems from the beginning of the Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle of the Chun qiu Period(11th century B.C.E.-6th century B.C.E.), and is divided into three parts, namely, the Feng, the Ya, and the Song. This paper can actively explore the types of dances and performance forms unique to the Shi jing-Feng from the literature, expanding the ideas for the theoretical study of ancient music and dance, which is of great social significance and artistic value. Materials and Methods: This paper uses the documentary research method to discover textual records on the types of music dance and performance forms of the fifteen vassal states. A case study method is used to select representative chapters from the five types of music and dance for specific analyses. The main informants of this paper are divided into three groups: experts on the Shi jing, researchers from museums and cultural centers, and performers of ancient music and dance. The validity of the collected data was tested using mathematical statistics. Results: A study of the Shi jing - Feng concept, its composition and contents, and the characteristics of its language and methods of expression. From 160 poems, 17 poems with music and dance records are selected and analyzed in terms of the types of music and dance as well as the forms of performance. Conclusion: Based on the results of the study, the concept of "Shi jing-Feng", the three accounts of the process of its formation, and its specific characteristics are clarified. Five types of music and dance are derived from the text, namely, the witch dance, the ten thousand dance, the shooting and hunting dance, the collective song and dance, and the banquet and drinking music and dance, and it is summarized that the Chinese pre-Qin music and dance adopt the integrated performance form of poetry, music, and dance in a trinity.

Fuel types and use in late Western Zhou (877 – 771 BCE) industrial contexts in Northwest China

To date, the types of fuels used in pottery kilns during the Western Zhou Dynasty have not been adequately addressed. Samples from updraft kilns and semi-downdraft kilns at the Fengjing site, the capital in the late Western Zhou period, were selected for analysis. Through phytolith and wood charcoal analysis, various grasses mainly Panicoideae, Pooideae, and Eragrostidoideae, as well as millet, rice, and wheat crops were identified. Additionally, wood primarily from trees of the Quercus, Ulmus, and Liquidambar taxa was found. These findings suggest that different pottery kilns used similar fuels, demonstrating a broad-spectrum rather than specialized fuel utilization during the Zhou period.

Reconstructing the social structure of kinship members in the Central Plains during the Late Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in China: A stable isotopic study on the Xisima site

AbstractKinship plays a role at the grassroots of social organization, especially in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, which is an important research topic in China. However, the relationship between diet and the social status of kinship and kinship members has been little explored in previous studies. In this article, 52 skeletal bone collagen samples from humans and buried dogs from three different kinships in the Xisima cemetery in China were analysed by stable C and N isotope analysis to reveal dietary strategies, and thus explore subsistence patterns and social structure. Overall, the mean human δ13C was −8.4‰ ± 1.3‰ (n = 44), with a range of −10.0‰ to −7.4‰, and the mean δ15N was 9.0‰ ± 0.7‰ (n = 44), with a wide range of 7.9–11.1‰, which shows that C4 food dominates people’s diet, and that their diet was varied. There are differences in diet and rank among different kinships. Similar situations exist among kinship members based on platforms. Along with previous research, this study provides unprecedented dietary details of different social stratification from martyrs, common people and small nobles to high‐ranking nobles in order to better understand the hierarchical Shang and Zhou dynasties society based on kinship.

Study of initial corrosion and protection behavior of bronze from the Western Zhou Dynasty assisted by BTA

Electrochemistry methods and surface characteristics were used to investigate the corrosion behaviors in the initial stage and the inhibition efficiency of BTA in simulated soil environments for simulated bronze samples. The results show that the inhibition efficiency can reach 99.96 %; A protrusion morphology of corrosion products formed by PbSO4 with a channel formed by Cu compounds that can transport corrosive media was found in the cross-section of the Pb-rich samples. A mechanism for galvanic corrosion was proposed with the assistance of the inhibition effect of BTA, which can explain the different corrosion behaviors of samples with different Pb contents.

Literacy Transmission and Development of Xu Gongning Bianzhong in Chinese Universities

The Xu Gongning Bianzhong, an ancient musical instrument dating back to the Western Zhou Dynasty, embodies China’s rich cultural heritage. This study investigates the literacy transmission and development of Xu Gongning Bianzhong in Chinese universities, aiming to understand its preservation and development in traditional Chinese music education. Utilizing qualitative interviews, archival research, and thematic analysis, the research focuses on the School of Music at Pingdingshan University in Henan Province, China, as the research site. A total of 18 informants, including experts in Bianzhong reproduction and performance, students, and teachers, provide insights into the transmission process. Data analysis reveals structured classroom teaching, curriculum integration, and student experiences shaping Bianzhong’s literacy. Results highlight historical findings, innovative teaching methods, and positive student feedback, emphasizing the instrument’s cultural significance and educational impact. The study suggests a continued emphasis on immersive teaching practices, interdisciplinary collaboration, and cultural preservation efforts within higher education settings.

A fluorite bead from Bronze Age Tianshanbeilu cemetery, Xinjiang, Northwest China

The Tianshanbeilu cemetery is the largest Bronze Age cemetery in eastern Xinjiang, China, and plays important roles in connecting the Eurasian interior to the Hexi Corridor, and further to the Central Plains region. Utilizing micro-XRF and Raman spectroscopy techniques, we identified a fluorite bead at this cemetery. This barrel bead is the earliest record of such a fluorite bead in China, dating back to approximately 1385–1256 BCE. Comparing the unearthed records of fluorite beads in eastern China spanning from the Neolithic Age to the Western Zhou dynasty, we notice that in the early Western Zhou period, fluorite beads found in élite burials are only in barrel or biconical shapes, both of which first appeared in the eastern region of Xinjiang, such as the Tianshanbeilu cemetery in Hami and the Yanghai cemetery in the Turpan Basin. We proposed that the barrel fluorite bead drilled by metal tubular drill first appearing in the Tianshanbeilu cemetery might have spread eastward to the Central Plains region and finally constituted a component of the ritual revolutions during the Western Zhou dynasty.

The Chinese Origin of Xue (Learning)

Highlights The concept of xue (学) played a central role in Chinese education. Through the analysis of this key concept, we can further explain the internal differences between Chinese and Western educational cultures and systems. By mastering numerical divination techniques, shi (historians, 史) recast their role from that of sorcerers to that of civil officials. Such a shift laid the foundation necessary for xue to transform from a venue for military decision-making into a place for cultural and educational engagement after the Western Zhou Dynasty. In addition to shaping its core philosophical spirit, the origin of xue established its significance in traditional Chinese social and cultural contexts. It has contributed to the formation and transformation of the concept of de (virtue, 德) and continues to exert a great influence on contemporary Chinese education.

Music Education in the Western Zhou Dynasty and its Practical Significance

In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the organization of music education was large and the teaching management was strict. The content taught by music, music language and music and dance were the main body. The teaching progress and teaching time were managed to a certain extent and had high standardization. Educators through learning a variety of musical skills, such as instrumental music, vocal music, music and dance, to achieve the all-round development of people. This paper aims to find the connection between modern and contemporary music education and Western Zhou music education by combing the system and content of music education in Western Zhou.

Reconstructing and tracing the evolution of the road networks in the Haidai region of China during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages

Reconstructing ancient transportation networks is critical to studying past human mobility patterns. China’s Haidai region was a thriving political and economic hub during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. We used GIS spatial analysis techniques to build a “Settlement Interaction Model” based on archaeological data from the Haidai region during the Bronze and Early Iron Age (Shang Dynasty, Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring & Autumn Period, and Warring States period). The eight-level road network maps with traffic attributes were distinguished based on topography and settlement size. The total lengths of the road networks were estimated to be 19,112 km in the Shang Dynasty, 35,269 km in the Western Zhou Dynasty, 51,555 km in the Spring & Autumn Period, and 77,456 km in the Warring States Period, with the average road flows of 6.6, 31.7, 42.8, and 75.5, respectively. The Z score and one-sample t-test (p < 0.01) confirmed the reliability of the reconstructed road networks. The Shang Dynasty saw the sporadic appearance of simple road routes. More complex routes emerged during the Western Zhou Dynasty and Spring & Autumn Period. The road networks were finally built during the Warring States Period. The development of road networks was closely related to population growth and urbanization. Exploring methods for reconstructing road networks may help us uncover ancient road networks and better understand ancient cultural exchanges.

《說文解字》“从夲”諸字考及西周金文中“从𠦪”字考

Some people identify the character “夲” in clerical form as “𠦍”。 In Shuowen Jiezi (Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters), all characters belonging to “夲” are derived from the character “夲”, like “𠦪”、“曓”、“𡴞”、“奏”and“皋”。They are all components separated from the seal script forms of characters。But we believe that the character “夲” has nothing to do with the above。In Shuowen Jiezi, the pronunciation of the character “夲” is given as “滔”, which seems to inherit the “”, “” belonging to the character “𠦪”, borrowing the pronunciation of “禱”。We believe that the character “夲” may be related to the character “奔”, and its rhyme is also related to the characters “跑”, “挑”, or “走”, thus the pronunciation of the character “夲” is “滔”。 The initials of the characters “𠦪”, “曓”, “𡴞” and “奏” in Shuowen Jiezi are not very similar, the pronunciation of the character “夲” is “滔”, which also has a rhyming relationship with the characters “曓”, “奏” and “皋”, but their origins are different。The characters “𠦪”, “曓”, “𡴞” and “奏” can be classified under the “𠦪” radical, and the ancient form of the character “㚖” can be classified under the “㚔” radical。In Shuowen Jiezi, some characters in the “夲” section can be classified under the “𠦪” radical。This paper uses oracle bone inscriptions to explore the origin of the character “𠦪” , in the bronze inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty, characters pronounced as “𠦪” include “𠦪”, “”, “”and “”, while the character “曓” has not yet been found。In the Yin and Zhou Bronze Inscriptions Collected, there are more than 50 examples of characters with the pronunciation of “𠦪”, such as “𩞑(饙)”, “賁”, “幩”, “帗”, “紱”, “韍”, “黻”, etc。In the bronze inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the character “𠦪”is borrowed for characters such as “賁”, “幩”, “巿”, “祓”, “韍”, “饙” and “弼”, these borrowed characters have labial initials and a entering tone (-k) or a nasal ending (-en) in their rhyme。Their meanings, besides being used as personal names, also include “祓”, “賁”, “𩞑(饙)”, “弼”, “韍”, and “百”。 Among them, the character “” in “趩觶(chi zhi)” (06516) is interpreted as “百世”, which can be seen as a ligature, and it should be identify in clerical form as “”, but some people interpreted it as “𠦪”, we believe that should be interpreted as the variant character of “𠦪”。

Digital twin applications in an archaeological site: A virtual reconstruction of the Pishan site, Zhejiang, China

A digital twin is a virtual counterpart of a physical object or system based on precise data collection. Although digital twin applications are gaining traction in the virtual reconstruction of built heritage, their relevance in archaeological sites remains limited, especially for those with only foundations. The Pishan (毘山) site in Huzhou, featuring the remains of a high-platform building and a large stilt-style architecture, represents the largest settlement site from the late Shang (商, ca. 1600 &amp;ndash; 1046 BCE) and early Western Zhou (西周, 1046 &amp;ndash; 771 BCE) dynasties in Zhejiang Province, China. At present, confronting contradictions among preservation, restoration, and reuse as a heritage park, the site leverages digital twin technologies to address two concerns: (i) reconstructing a 3D scene for further restoration and related studies and (ii) integrating multimedia to enhance visitors&amp;rsquo; experiences and dissemination. Photogrammetry, unmanned aerial vehicle, and a mirrorless camera are employed to collect sky and ground dual graphic data and reconstruct the 3D model of the loess terrace. A panoramic roaming environment is created through panoramic photography. Geographic information system is integrated to enable visual analysis and information management while building information modeling facilitates the integration of parametric modeling and point cloud, aiding virtual restoration research. In conclusion, a workflow entitled &amp;ldquo;Virtual Reconstruction &amp;ndash; Management and Analysis &amp;ndash; Restoration &amp;ndash; Exhibition&amp;rdquo; is proposed, promising in-depth exploration in further studies.

Spatial–Temporal Evolution Analysis of the Development of Jingdang and Famen Townships in the Vicinity of the Capital City Site of the Western Zhou Dynasty in China

This study aimed to explore the evolution of Jingdang and Famen towns near the Zhouyuan site, the capital city site of the Western Zhou Dynasty in China, to elucidate the relationship between township development and the essential ancient relics conservation areas. Based on the remote sensing satellite images from 1982 to 2022, combining with historical demographic data, this study used four methods, including land use classification, land use transfer matrix, landscape pattern center of gravity changes, and population count statistics, to study the spatial–temporal evolution of land, population, and ecology in the region over the past 40 years. The results showed that under the strict relic conservation regimen, these two towns are in a declining stage. To improve their decaying status, some potential strategies valuable for township development are proposed to balance the relationship between relic conservation and township development for their mutual benefit and coexistence.

Study of the manufacture of high‐fired ceramics from Fujian (China) during the Shang and Zhou dynasties

AbstractIn recent years, some kiln sites from Shang and Zhou dynasties have been excavated in Fujian province in southeastern China, and substantial high‐quality ceramic shards were unearthed. The research conducted by archaeologists indicates that these shards are likely the earliest high‐fired ceramic products in this area, characterised by unique appearance features and are therefore valuable for exploring the development and manufacture of early high‐fired ceramics in Fujian. In this study, we gathered some proto‐celadon and stamped stoneware shards from three kiln sites dating back to the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. We analysed the chemical composition of the ceramic body and glaze, firing temperature, and mineral phase to investigate the selection of raw materials, firing, and glazing technology of these early ceramic products. The results indicate that the bodies of these high‐fired ceramic shards were made of locally weathered porcelain stone, and the glazes are lime glaze. During the Western Zhou dynasty, the potter utilised different raw materials for proto‐celadon and stamped stoneware, which was not the case during the Shang Dynasty. The firing temperatures of the majority of shards exceeded 1,000°C, and the bodies had been completed phase transformation.

Taking the Chu Gong Jia Bells as an Example to Discuss the Regional Characteristics of the State of Chu During the Western Zhou Dynasty -- Also on the Origin of the Chu Gong Jia Bell Unearthed in Zhouyuan

Taking the Chu Gong Jia Bells as an Example to Discuss the Regional Characteristics of the State of Chu During the Western Zhou Dynasty -- Also on the Origin of the Chu Gong Jia Bell Unearthed in Zhouyuan

Animal Use Strategies in the Longshan Mountain Region of Northern China during the First Millennium BC: A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Yucun.

The first millennium BC saw the expansion of the Western Zhou dynasty in its northwestern frontier, alongside the rise and development of the Qin State in the Longshan Mountain region of northern China. Exploring the subsistence practices of these communities is crucial to gaining a better understanding of the social, cultural, and political landscape in this region at the time. While much of the research to date has focused on the Qin people, the subsistence practices of the Zhou people remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed animal remains from Yucun, a large settlement site associated with the Zhou people, located to the east of the Longshan Mountain. These animal remains were recovered in the excavation seasons of 2018-2020. Our results show that pigs, dogs, cattle, caprines, and horses, which were the major domestic animals at Yucun, accounted for over 90.8% of the animal remains examined in terms of the number of identified specimens (NISP) and 72.8% in terms of the minimum number of individuals (MNI), with cattle and caprines playing dominant roles. In terms of the taxonomic composition and the mortality profiles of pigs, caprines, and cattle, Yucun shared similarities with Maojiaping and Xishan, two contemporaneous Qin cultural sites located to the west of the Longshan Mountain, and differ from other farming societies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River valley. Considering the cultural attributes and topographic conditions of these various sites, these findings imply that environmental conditions may have played a more significant role than cultural factors in shaping the animal-related subsistence practices in northern China during the first millennium BC.

Piedad filial: un estudio del pensamiento Confuciano de piedad filial

Abstract: Filial piety is a fundamental moral value in Chinese culture and has played a significant role in Chinese history. Its origins can be traced back to the pre-Qin period, where it developed during the Xia and Shang dynasties, and flourished in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Confucius, the renowned philosopher and educator, first introduced the concept of filial piety in Confucianism. He combined it with the idea of “Ren” and specified the essential elements of filial piety. Mencius, one of Confucius’ most prominent disciples, continued to develop the concept of filial piety by integrating it with other theories such as “the theory of good nature” and “the kingly way politics.” He also introduced the criterion of “unfiliality”, which further enriched the understanding of filial piety. This paper analyzes the evolution and influence of filial piety by examining the thoughts of pre-Qin Confucian scholars. It also discusses the role and significance of filial piety in contemporary society. Given the lack of archaeological evidence, it is important to avoid mentioning the disputed existence of the Xia dynasty in the abstract.

A VIEW FROM THE COUNTRYSIDE: RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY FOR ZAOLINHETAN OF THE PRE-ZHOU CULTURE IN EARLY DYNASTIC CHINA

ABSTRACTThe conquest of the Shang Dynasty at Anyang around 1046 BCE by the Zhou is one of the major events for not only Chinese Bronze Age but also early interaction between the pastoralist groups from the Eurasian Steppes and agriculture ones in the Central Plains of China. It is well-known from historical texts that the pre-Zhou people lived in the ancient Bin region (豳), the exact location of which is unclear, but most likely in the Jing River valley. At some point the leader Gugong Danfu (古公亶父) moved from Bin to the capital Qi (Zhouyuan), which preceded the Zhou invasion of Anyang. We have produced a new high resolution radiocarbon chronology for Zaolinhetan, a small settlement in the pre-Zhou heartland. This shows not only an exceptionally long chronological span for the site, but also a different phasing compared to the traditional pottery typology, which raises new questions regarding the regional variation of pottery typologies. Intriguingly, the analysis also reveals a rapid abandonment of Zaolinhetan around 1100 BCE, at the same time many larger sites, such as Zhouyuan, which later became the capital of the Western Zhou dynasty, were significantly expanding. We argue that the drastic decline of Zaolinhetan as revealed by the substantial number of radiocarbon dates and probably also the movement of pre-Zhou political center from Bin to Qin, was part of bigger picture that involved a range of social and environmental factors.

Integrating typological and stylistic characteristics with scientific results on the provenance study of of proto-porcelain from the Yejiashan Cemetery dating to the early western Zhou Dynasty

There has been widespread concern about the provenance of proto-porcelain in previous studies, which is fundamental in determining the origin of porcelain. However, there are still different opinions on the provenance of proto-porcelain. To discuss this question, this study analyzed 21 proto-porcelain shards, excavated from the Yejiashan Cemetery, on the basis of typology, petrography, and LA-ICP-AES methodologies. Three shards from the Panlongcheng site were also collected for comparative analysis. The typological analysis showed that the majority of proto-porcelain samples from the Yejiashan Cemetery were similar to those from Northern China in type, shape, decoration,and glaze color, while 2 shards showed typical Southern characteristics. The petrographic analysis indicated that there were two different patterns of distribution for quartz particles in the collected samples, which suggested the potential existence of at least two different origins. The LA-ICP-AES analysis results also supported two different origins for Yejiashan proto-porcelain and suggested that one may originate from Zhejiang Province in Southern China. In summary, our study has demonstrated the existence of at least two distinct provenance areas for the proto-porcelain sourced from the Yejiashan cemetery. This distinction is founded upon disparities in typological characteristics, distribution patterns of quartz particles, and chemical compositions. This conclusion contributes to a better understanding of cultural exchange between the Zeng state and neighboring regions and can shed light on the manufacturing industry of the early Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–771 BC).

Spatiotemporal variation of human settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to flooding in the lower Yellow River floodplain, East China

Both historical documents and geological archives have recorded frequent extreme flood occurrences between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP (i.e., the late Shang dynasty) in East China. As a flood-prone area, the lower Yellow River floodplain experienced significant changes in human settlement between the Shang (1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) dynasties. However, the relationship between extreme flood occurrences and changes in human settlement remains unclear. This study aims to examine the spatiotemporal variations of settlement distribution between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties in relation to extreme flooding during the late Shang dynasty. The results indicate that settlement distribution and settlement density exhibited clear shifts between the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, and the period of the late Shang dynasty was an extreme-flood-rich interval within and around the lower Yellow River floodplain. Because the course of the lower Yellow River was relatively stable during the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, frequent extreme flood occurrences during the late Shang dynasty should change the hydrological settings in key locations along the lower Yellow River course. The northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas were subjected to frequent crevasses from the flooding of the Yellow River between approximately 3200 and 3000 cal. yr BP. These significant hydrological changes in northern Henan and its southeastern low-lying areas, combined with frequent wars and conflicts between local tribes and Shang people, likely contributed to a decrease in settlement number and a contraction of settlement distribution. In response to the floods during the late Shang dynasty, ancient inhabitants most likely elevated their dwellings and created the mound sites that exist in the lower Yellow River floodplain today.

A study of the di sacrifice rite in the Spring and Autumn Period

ABSTRACT The di sacrifice rite (dili 禘禮) is an important traditional Chinese religious ceremony for offering sacrifices to ancestors. The rites of the Shang, Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods have evolved in terms of the person who conducts them, as well as regarding the recipients, forms and the time of the ritual. In the Shang Dynasty, the di sacrifice rite was performed by the king. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the person who presided over the ceremony was first the King of Zhou, and then the counsellors. The Spring and Autumn di sacrifice rite inherited these practices and understandings. It involves a more detailed ritual: those who preside over the ceremony are first the feudal lords (zhuhou 諸侯), then the counsellors (qing dafu 卿大夫) and finally descending to the rank of officials of counsellors (jiachen 家臣). The di sacrifice addressees are also mainly close ancestors. The di rite eventually evolved to give rise to guan rituals (guanli 灌[祼]禮), auspicious ancestral rites, private di sacrifices, procedures for determining generation order of the clan temple (ding zhaomu 定昭穆), and other rituals.