Western Syria Research Articles

When did the Dead Sea fault become a transform?

This study re-evaluates the ∼20 Myr development of the Dead Sea Fault System (DSFS) and its tectonic definition as a transform plate boundary. The DSFS conveys sinistral displacement between the Arabian-Sinai plates: ∼105 km along its ∼400 km-long southern segment (Gulf of Aqaba-Eilat to the Hula basin); ∼90 km and 4–16 km along the central and northern segments (∼190 km long each, across Lebanon, western Syria, and southern Turkey). A review of previous studies, combined with new seismological data analysis, associates the northward displacement decline with obstacles along the DSFS propagation path. During the Miocene, DSFS propagated up to the NW-trending Irbid rift (1st obstacle) and splayed NW towards the Mediterranean and NE along the Late Cretaceous Palmyra fold-thrust belt (2nd obstacle). Its reactivation uplifted the Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Northward DSFS propagation into the cold and rigid Aleppo plateau lithosphere (3rd obstacle) was stalled until the early Pliocene (∼5 Ma), when volcanism and ongoing regional tectonic forcing enabled the DSFS to shift to the Yammouneh fault and rupture through the Missyaf-Ghab branch farther north (central and northern segments, respectively). During the Pleistocene-recent, connection of the DSFS with the ophiolite belt and East Anatolian Fault System (EAFS) along the Bitlis suture zone (4th obstacle) has not yet been established. Seismological data show a clear separation between the EAFS and the DSFS, while seismicity is scattered across the Aleppo plateau and the central and northern DSFS segments. In contrast, seismicity is localized along the southern DSFS segment. Our findings suggest that, at present, the DSFS has still not made a structural, seismologic, and tectonic connection with the EAFS. Hence, we redefine the DSFS as a pre-transform and suggest its interaction with the EAFS is a world-class example of a fault-fault-fault triple junction in the making.

GIS-based multi-criteria decision making for delineation of potential groundwater recharge zones for sustainable resource management in the Eastern Mediterranean: a case study

In light of population growth and climate change, groundwater is one of the most important water resources globally. Groundwater is crucial for sustaining many vital sectors in Syria, including industrial and agricultural sectors. However, groundwater exploitation has significantly escalated to meet different water needs especially in the post-war period and the earthquake disaster. Therefore, the goal was this study delineation of the groundwater potential zones (GPZs) by integrating the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method in a geographic information systems (GIS) within the AlAlqerdaha river basin in western Syria. In this study, ten criteria were used to map the spatial distribution of GPZs, including slope, geomorphology, drainage density, land use/land cover (LU/LC), lineament density, lithology, rainfall, soil, curvature and topographic wetness index (TWI). GPZs map was validated by using the location of 74 wells and the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (ROC). The findings suggest that the study area is divided into five GPZs: very low, 21.39 km2 (10.87%); low, 52.45 km2 (26.65%); moderate, 65.64 km2 (33.35%); high, 40.45 km2 (20.55%) and very high, 16.90 km2 (8.58%). High and very high zones mainly corresponded to the western regions of the study area. The conducted spatial modeling indicated that the AHP-based GPZs map showed a remarkably acceptable correlation with wells locations (AUC = 87.7%, n = 74), demonstrating the precision of the AHP–GIS as a rating method. The results of this study provide objective and constructive outputs that can help decision-makers to optimally manage groundwater resources in the post-war phase in Syria.

Analyses of data from the first Chinese seismo electromagnetic satellite (CSES-01) together with other earthquake precursors associated with the Turkey earthquakes (February 6, 2023)

Abstract On 6 February 2023, at 01:17:35 and 10:24:49 UTC (LT = UTC + 03:00) two earthquakes with magnitude 7.8 (37.166° N, 37.042° E, depth ∼ 17.9 km) and 7.5 (38.024° N, 37.203° E, depth ∼ 10 km), respectively, heavily struck southern and central Turkey and northern and western Syria. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relation between pre-earthquake anomalies observed in different layers of the earth system and explore the earthquake mechanism of LAIC (Lithospheric Atmospheric Ionospheric Coupling) associated with earthquake precursors. To achieve this goal, electron density and temperature variations obtained from CSES-01 data in the Dobrovolsky’s area the Turkey earthquakes are analyzed in the period from November 1, 2022 to February 10, 2023. Since investigating the LAIC mechanism requires multi-precursor analysis, anomalies obtained from CSES-01 data were compared with the behavior of anomalies obtained from other lithospheric, atmospheric and ionospheric precursors in the same location and time of the study area. These anomalies that were analyzed in the previous study are: (1) TEC data obtained from GPS-GIM maps, (2) electron density and temperature variations obtained from Swarm satellites (Alpha, Bravo and Charlie) measurements, (3) Atmospheric data including water vapour, methane, ozone, CO and AOD obtained from the measurements of OMI and AIRS satellites, and (4) Lithospheric data including number of earthquakes obtained from USGS and also surface temperature obtained from the measurements of AIRS satellite. It should be noted that clear anomalies are observed between 1 and 5 days before the earthquake in electron density and temperature variations measured by CSES-01 during the day and night and they are in good agreement with the variations in the Swarm satellites data and GPS-TEC. The interesting and significant finding is that lithospheric anomalies are detected in the land surface temperature data in the time interval of 19–12 days before the earthquake, and then most of the atmospheric anomalies are observed in the time period of 10–5 days prior to the earthquake and at the end striking ionospheric anomalies are revealed during 5–1 days preceding the earthquake. Therefore, the results of this study confirm the sequence of appearing of earthquake precursors from the lower layers of the lithosphere to the upper layers of the ionosphere during 1–15 days before the earthquake, and finally proving the LAIC mechanism can significantly contribute to the efficiency and lower uncertainty of earthquake early warning systems in the future.

Application of machine learning in the assessment of landslide susceptibility: A case study of mountainous eastern Mediterranean region, Syria

Landslide is a considerable geomorphological risk in terrain systems worldwide. Advanced techniques present a unique tool for predicting landslide susceptibility with unbiased and precise outputs. However, the application of this tool to analyze landslide susceptibility in the eastern Mediterranean landscape is still not sufficiently understood. This study aimed to assess the implementation of three machine learning (ML) algorithms, i.e., support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boost (XGBoost), in landslide susceptibility mapping in the mountainous area of western Syria. In this regard, 200 landslide events were inventoried from historical data, aerial images and conducted fieldworks. Sixteen triggering factors were selected according to the literature and geographical features (Monsoon period). The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) outcomes revealed that the RF achieved better performance with an area under curve (AUC) of 0.96, pursued by XGBoost and SVM with AUC of 0.94 and 0.90, respectively. This assessment presents an essential understanding of the effective implementation of ML in landslide assessment in the mountainous region of the eastern Mediterranean. We emphasized, hence, that the RF algorithm has the most robust performance of landslide susceptibility prediction in the western Syria. Moreover, the outputs of this study will provide local decision-makers with insights to produce regional management strategies for the landslide, especially after the Syrian war phase.

Drawing diffusion patterns of Neolithic agriculture in Anatolia

The data distribution for plant domestication in the various parts of Anatolia is uneven and quite scarce or altogether missing for large tracts of the region. The Southeastern Taurus region and Central Anatolia provide a relatively good Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) archaeobotanical record, which is also the case, to a certain degree, for Central Anatolia. The rest of present-day Turkey, e.g., the northeast region, Cilicia, the Lake District and major parts of western Anatolia (the Black Sea, Mediterranean coast and Marmara regions) provide mostly Pottery Neolithic (PN) archaeobotanical data. The PN sites in these regions appear to represent Neolithic “pioneer” communities that established new sites based on an agricultural economy, of which none predate the second half of the 8th millennium cal. BC. Evidently, domesticated plants that first appeared in the Southeastern Taurus region ca. 8500 cal. BC spread rapidly to western Syria, Cyprus and Central Anatolia a couple of hundreds of years later (still within the second half of the 9th millennium cal. BC). It took another millennium for domesticates and agriculture to reach western Anatolia. While the growing intensity of Neolithic research throughout Turkey (western Turkey included) in recent years may change the picture, for now, based on the available data, this is the emerging pattern and it deserves thought. Based on evidence from a range of relevant disciplines (geobotany, archaeobotany, agronomy, genetics, archaeology and ethnobotany) we support a “rapid” model for plant domestication in Anatolia (as opposed to the “protracted” model). We reconstruct the diffusion of domesticates and the new economy in Turkey and into Europe via maritime routes and through the inland “Anatolian Corridor.” We offer itinerant farming craftsmen (“expert harvesters”) as a possible mechanism in the diffusion of agricultural products during the Neolithic.

Community engagement and crowdsourcing for effective disaster response and rescue operations during the earthquake in Syria

IntroductionOn February 6, 2023, at 4:17 a.m., a catastrophic earthquake struck the regions of southern and central Turkey and northern and western Syria, leaving over 51.000 casualties, and hundreds of thousands lost their homes. In Syria, the area affected by the earthquake was already vulnerable due to the protracted Syrian conflict. AimThe aim of this article was to present a report from the field where community engagement and crowdsourcing were used to support search and rescue efforts during the Syrian earthquake. MethodsThe process was divided into 3 stages: 1- Emergency response, 2- Humanitarian aid response, 3- Systematic response. Data was collected through Google form and mapped on Google Earth. The form was distributed through social media platforms to collect the data from the affected locations.Criteria were developed to validate the data received and confirm the location affected. Confirmed locations were communicated with relevant authorities and the civil community. Resultswithin the first 24 h, 1259 reports on affected locations and collapsed building were received. Data analysis resulted in a map of 129 confirmed locations with 1083 collapsed building. The majority were in Aleppo and Idlib. This process helped organise the search and rescue operations and direct them to correct locations. ConclusionThe present article described using community engagement and crowdsourcing in supporting emergency response and rescue operations to manage the aftermath of the massive earthquake that hit Syria in February 2023. The methodology presented in the article demonstrated the potential of utilising community engagement and crowdsourcing to improve disaster response efforts and outcomes.

Water, Communication, Sight, and the Location of Fortifications on the Strata Diocletiana (Syria) in Late Antiquity

Abstract The Strata Diocletiana was a military road in Late Roman Period Syria. It ran from Damascus to the Euphrates by way of Palmyra. The road was fortified and received its name during the reign of Diocletian (284–305 CE), following the Roman sack and subsequent garrisoning of Palmyra after the city’s failed revolt 272–273 CE. The Strata Diocletiana is only one of several attested routes between Palmyra and western Syria and one of two between Palmyra and Damascus. In this study, we seek to understand why this route was chosen for the new fortified road. We compare the location of Late Roman fortifications along the Strata Diocletiana to the modern distribution of water in the Syrian Desert and the theoretical least-cost paths between Palmyra and Damascus, and Palmyra and the fortress of Sura on the Euphrates. The argument is made that some parts of the Roman road network in the Syrian Desert were planned in order to control major water sources along the desert rim, but that the new military road between Damascus and Palmyra in the late third century CE was constructed with the aim of monitoring and controlling access to settled regions from the desert, in addition to ease and speed of communication. The conclusions have bearings not only on our understanding of the Late Roman defence and communication system, but also on nomad-settled interaction in Late Antiquity and the use of GIS methodologies in the reconstruction of ancient communication networks.

Mobility and connection among the Early Bronze Age Syrian elite

The archaeological site of Umm el-Marra (in the Jabbul plain, western Syria), is a large, fortified urban center. Excavations have uncovered ten tomb structures built during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2600–2150 BCE) that possibly contain royalty as evidenced by lavish grave goods and paleopathological evidence suggesting sociocultural buffering from the harsh social and physical environments of agricultural urban centers in the Bronze Age Near East. Inside adjacent brick installations are animal (primarily equid) skeletons interpreted as interments, possibly sacrifices in some instances, as part of ceremonies honoring the entombed. The burial site was eventually re-used as evidenced by a monumental platform above the tombs, interpreted as use for ritual activities of ancestor veneration.This study analyzed 87Sr/86Sr and δ18O values from enamel of 13 individuals interred in these tombs, along with enamel and bone samples from animals found in and around the tomb structures. Six of 13 (43 %) individuals analyzed in these tombs are identified as non-locals. Although contemporaneous data in the northern Levant is scarce, we see much higher evidence of human movement at Umm el-Marra compared to others. Only elites are included in this study, but their relative mobility might imply that the ancient city established its position as a secondary center along major trade routes through intermarriage and connectivity. The concept of ‘social memory’ is evident, as the lives and deaths of these elites are integrated into this site where ancestor veneration is evidenced in centuries following interment.

Geodynamics of the Caucasus – Anatolian-Arabian region and Turkey-Syria Earthquakes 2023

The activation of natural disasters in the world requires the development of new approaches to the study of geological processes, in particular, at the boundaries of lithospheric plates, characterized by earthquakes, increased seismicity, volcanism, landslide processes, tsunamis and other dangerous natural processes and hazards. Earthquake of M 7.8 struck south -eastern Turkey and north - western Syria on 6 February 2023. The M 7.8 earthquake is the largest in Turkey since the 1939 Erzincan earthquake, and the second-strongest recorded in the country, after the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake. More than 52,800 deaths were confirmed: more than 46,100 in Turkey, and more than 6,700 in Syria. It is the deadliest natural disaster in Turkey's modern history. The earthquakes caused over US$100 billion in damages. The geodynamic models construction for the deep structure of natural hazards regions is an important contribution to the study of active continental margins, which is necessary for the earthquake forecast, prediction and prognosis, assessing geoecological risks and preparing population actions in the event of natural disasters and catastrophes. The Caucasus - Arabian region is a complex highly-stressed geodynamic structure, characterized by increased heat flow, high seismicity, magmatism and volcanism. The geodynamics of the Caucasus - Arabian region is determined by the collision of the Eurasian and Arabian lithosphere plates, as well as the complex history of the development of the Alpine-Himalayan belt and surrounding territories. The problem solution of geological structures formation and evolution in various complex geodynamic settings and natural hazards forecast and prognosis requires an analysis of all available geological - geophysical data, as well as the formulation and solution of problems of mechanical and mathematical modeling. Slow lithospheric deformations are simulated by models of viscous flow in multi-layered, incompressible, high-viscosity Newtonian fluid, using Navier-Stocks equation and discontinuity equation. The solution of the inverse problem of geodynamics by the direct method is developed. The first inverse problem of geodynamics was solved - the restoration of the velocity fields, pressures and stresses at the depth of the lithosphere according to the available data on the velocities on the surface. The second inverse problem of geodynamics has been posed and solved - the determination of the movement of boundaries at the depth of the lithosphere based on the given movements of the surface. The solutions obtained can be used to analyze deep geodynamic problems, and together with geothermal modeling, geological and geophysical methods and seismic tomography can serve as a reliable apparatus for studying deep geodynamics due to the formation and evolution of geological structures and the lithosphere stress-strain state researches. The solution of the problem is analyzed on the example of the Caucasus - Arabian region geodynamics. The Geodynamic concept of geoenvironment has been developed. Geodynamic models of the regions of hazardous natural processes in order to predict and prevent natural disasters and catastrophes are constructed. An algorithm for creating monitoring systems is suggested.

Quantifying the water soil erosion rate using RUSLE, GIS, and RS approach for Al-Qshish River Basin, Lattakia, Syria

Soil erosion is one of the most prominent geomorphological hazards threatening environmental sustainability in the coastal region of western Syria. The current war conditions in Syria has led to a lack of field data and measurements related to assessing soil erosion. Mapping the spatial distribution of potential soil erosion is a basic step in implementing soil preservation procedures mainly in the river catchments. The present paper aims to conduct a comprehensive assessment of soil erosion severity using revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) and remote sensing (RS) data in geographic information system (GIS) environment across the whole Al-Qshish river basin. Quantitatively, the annual rate of soil erosion in the study basin was 81.1 t ha−1 year−1 with a spatial average reaching 55.2 t ha−1 year−1. Spatially, the soil erosion risk map was produced with classification into five susceptible-zones: very low (41 %), low (40.5%), moderate (8.9%), high (5.4%) and very high (4.2%). The current study presented a reliable assessment of soil loss rates and classification of erosion-susceptible areas within the study basin. These outputs can be relied upon to create measures for maintaining areas with high and very high soil erosion susceptibility under the current war conditions.

Spatial distribution of soil water erosion at Al-Hawiz Dam in Western Syria using CORINE model

Water erosion is one of the most important environmental problems that cause soil degradation in the areas of water basins in the Syrian coast. The present study aims at determining the spatial distribution of the risk of water erosion of the lands of Al-Hawiz Basin (Jableh region) using the CORINE model. The CORINE model is based on calculating all factors that affect water erosion: soil erosion factor, erosion factor, inclination factor, ground cover fac tor. The soil susceptibility factor for erosion was calculated by estimating both the soil texture, soil depth and gravity percentage for preparing a potential risk map. The feasibility of both the soil susceptibility factor map and the slope map prepared from the use of DEM and the value of the erosion factor were calculated using system technology Geographical information. Then the ground cover map was prepared and classified into two rows according to the degree of protection. The actual risk map was prepared from the seriousness of the potential danger map and the land cover map. The study showed that 12.79% of the studied area is under the control of severe erosion while 32.10% of which had an average risk of erosion, and the risk of erosion was low in the largest part of the area (55.11%). The areas of severe erosion have been concentrated in the central western region of Lake Al-Sadd. It has been shown that vegetation is the most influencing factor in erosion, as it worked to reduce the high risk of possible soil erosion by 50.83%.

An integrative approach uncovered variation within Trapelus ruderatus (Olivier, 1804) (Squamata: Agamidae) in Western Asia

The Agamid lizard Trapelus ruderatus has a large distribution in western Asia. There is as yet neither a comprehensive molecular phylogeny nor morphological variation studies on populations of this species. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the morphology and genetic attributes of this species from populations in Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. For the morphological examination, 18 characters (nine metric, eight meristic, and one ratio characters) were examined on all specimens. The populations were divided into four Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs; three in Iran and one in Turkey). The Iraqi population was distinguished as Trapelus persicus by morphological characters. Morphological analyses confirmed that all OTUs could be considered as distinct and that the Turkey population is clearly separated from the Iranian populations. In the genetic component of the project, two mitochondrial (Cytb and ND2) gene fragments were used to reveal phylogenetic relationships among the populations. Molecular phylogenetic reconstruction showed five distinct clades (three in Iran, one in southeastern Turkey, and one in central-southern Turkey–western Syria). Iraqi populations clustered with T. persicus, with high genetic distances from all other populations, as seen using morphological data. Based on the molecular genetic analyses, southeastern Turkey and central-southern Turkey-Syrian populations are clearly distinct (8.4% mean distance) and far from the type population in Iran. This suggests that they should be considered as different taxa. Iranian populations were differentiated into three major groups, the type population in Fars Province and two others in northwest and western Iran. The morphological and molecular genetic results gave a similar output with three Iranian populations having minor divergence, but being clearly separated from the population in Turkey. We suggest each of these groups should be considered as full species. According to divergence time estimation, T. ruderatus firstly diverged at 26.5 mya and subsequently diversified due to the uplifting of the Zagros Mountains and Anatolian Diagonal 15 mya. Subsequent aridification in the Central Iranian Plateau could also have contributed to the divergence of the Fars lineage 9.6 mya.

Estimating water erosion using RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing in Wadi-Qandeel river basin, Lattakia, Syria

Soil erosion is the major prominent ecological risk threatening agricultural sustainability in the coastal region of western Syria. The ongoing war conditions in Syria has led to a lack of field data and measurements related to the spatial evolution of soil loss. Estimating the spatial distribution of potential soil loss is a fundamental procedure in applying the soil conservations measures within the river catchments. The current paper goals to conduct a comprehensive assessment of soil loss risk utilizing revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) and remote sensing (RS) data in geographic information system (GIS) environment across the entire Wadi-Qandeel river basin. Results indicate that the annual rate of soil loss in the study area was 93.02 t ha−1 ya−1 with a spatial average reaching 58.22 t ha−1 ya−1. Additionally, the soil loss risk map was generated with classification into five susceptible zones: very low (56.44%), low (24.69%), moderate (20.80%), high (2.98%), and very high (2.22%). The present assessment showed a reliable approach to soil erosion rates and categorization of erosion-sensitive zones within the study area. These outcomes can be relied upon to create mitigation procedures for maintaining zones with high and very high soil loss susceptibility under the ongoing war conditions in Syria.

Assessing the WEPP model performance for predicting daily runoff in three terrestrial ecosystems in western Syria

Soil erosion is one of the main threats facing the agriculture and natural resources sector all over the world, and the same is true for Syria. Several empirical and physically based tools have been proposed to assess erosion induced soil losses and runoff driving the processes, from plot to regional spatial scales. The main goal of this research is to evaluate the performance of the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model in predicting runoff in comparison with field experiments in the Al-Sabahia region of Western Syria in three ecosystems: agricultural lands (AG), burned forest (BF) and forest (FO). To achieve this, field experimental plots (2∗1.65∗0.5 m) were prepared to obtain runoff observation data between September 2012 and December 2013. In addition, the input data (atmospheric forcing, soil, slope, land management) were prepared to run the WEPP model to estimate the runoff. The results indicate that the average observed runoffs in the AG, BF and FO were 12.54 ± 1.17, 4.81 ± 0.97 and 1.72 ± 0.16 mm/event, respectively, while the simulated runoffs in the AG, BF and FO were 15.15 ± 0.89, 9.23 ± 1.48 and 2.61 ± 0.47mm/event, respectively. The statistical evaluation of the model's performance showed an unsatisfactory performance of the WEPP model for predicting the run-offs in the study area. This may be caused by the structural flaws in the model, and/or the insufficient site-specific input parameters. So, to achieve good performance and reliable results of the WEPP model, more observation data is required from different ecosystems in Syria. These findings can provide guidance to planners and environmental engineers for proposing environmental protection and water resources management plans in the Coastal Region in Syria.

The development of integrated regional economies in the Early Bronze Age Levant: new evidence from ‘Combed Ware’ jars

This paper uses new petrographic and geochemical data (ICP-AES and -MS analyses) taken from samples of ‘Combed Ware’ jars occurring at sites on the Lebanese coast, the Bekaa Valley, the Orontes Valley around Homs and the North Jordan Valley, to investigate the production and distribution of these vessels in the Levant during the Early Bronze Age. The evidence points to the existence of integrated regional interaction zones that can be identified through specific modes of craft production and the associated distribution networks. The new evidence sheds light on the development of a nucleated settlement landscape, and the economic, social and political changes that this implies, in central Levant and western Syria during the first-half of the 3rd millennium BC, Early Bronze Age.

Turkish vision for the Middle East after 2014

Turkish vision for the Middle East after 2014

Past, present, and future geographic range of an oro-Mediterranean Tertiary relict: The juniperus drupacea case study

Juniperus drupacea is a unique relict species found in the mountains of southern Greece, southern Turkey, and western Syria and Lebanon. The aim of this study was to describe the natural range of this juniper by determining the current locations of its populations and to predict a theoretical range for the species based on current, past, and future climatic conditions. We used data from the literature, herbarium materials, and our unpublished field notes (about 500 georeferenced points in total) to determine the current natural distribution of J. drupacea (realized niche). To predict suitable conditions with the program MaxEnt, we used data from the WordClim database, which allowed estimation of the potential niche. The potential niche of J. drupacea was much wider during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and was severely restricted during the Eemian interglacial period. Depending on the climate scenario, this species could become endangered in the future due to climate changes. Considering the relatively restricted geographic range of J. drupacea and the decreasing numbers of localities where it is found, conservation strategies should be adopted to allow for preservation of its genetic and morphological diversity.

The national state and the concept of Sub-national groups: (Study in Ibn Khaldun s Al-Assaibya idea Chauvinism)

Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the first who addressed the role of ‘’AL-ASSAIBYA’’ in the cohesion and stability of the society, followed by studies in the fields of sociology and political sociology by linking the social environment with its political engines internally and externally. The purpose of this paper is to link the variables of the local environment of the state with its sociological and socio-cultural components in the fields of comparative policy analysis, especially those that deal with the understanding of the subjects of democracy and political and social development. On the other hand, these socio-cultural dimensions are linked to the subjects of international relations and external environmental issues of the state. Therefore the region of the Middle East –by its political, social, cultural and even historical dimensions- is considered a fertile environment for studying the status of the sub-national group for understanding the interactions among political units , whether at the level of countries or societies or even among members of a single group, whose loyalties are divided according into intellectual or political data, especially in the light of two basic ideas in the approach of Ibn Khaldun: 1- The idea of ‘’AL-ASSAIBYA’’ and its social and political roles in creating a league with a common ‘’Band’’ linked by a kind of social solidarity to face other social entities. 2- the idea of ‘’EL-Wazii’’: which Ibn Khaldun says that he is the ruler according the human nature or the reigning king dominates (here we discuss the idea of the fragility of the national state in the Middle East), in the sense of the existence of an authority that preserves society cohesion and works to strengthen cooperation between its members and curb the aggression of some on Some, Ibn Khaldun says, "….and they needed to do that to the ruler who ruled over them, which is by virtue of the human nature of the omnipotent king domineering." Particular emphasis will be placed on the role played by these groups, both as tools in the hands of the regional powers, or as an important task that has a functional role to form new models in the form and functions of the State in the Middle East. In more detail, sectarianism and ethnicity - or religious fanaticism and ‘’AL-ASSAIBYA’’ in the region - have had a profound impact on the demarcation of the Middle East's political and strategic landscape. For example, after the victory of the Khomeini revolution in 1979 in Iran and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran by theocratic and populist bases, which triggered a series of reactions adopted by Iran's regional neighborhood. As gathering under a bloc by Gulf states in a single entity to confront the Iranian tide and the danger of exporting the revolution to it, On the other hand, the reactions to Iranian policies have become more violent following the collapse of Saddam Hussein’s regime, deepening Iranian penetration in the region and fueling sectarianism by provoking war and sectarian strife in Iraq and Yemen and reaching Syria, and the role of forging new relations between Iran and the Middle East. Arab and non-Arab countries, especially Turkey. In the midst of this mess, the loyalties to the national state have transcended their traditional frameworks to extend beyond their borders to the benefit of the regional powers. In addition, The concept of a state in the Middle East has been threatened. Today, however, the issue of the State of the community or the state of the group or what Ibn Khaldun has called "the League"’’EL-OUSBAH’’ has become a fact. For example In Syria, one of the solutions was the establishment of the Alawite state in western Syria and the Kurdish state in the north. It is the same approach that has been proposed to settle the Iraqi situation ,since 2003 by dividing it into Shiite, Kurdish and Sunni entities. To Libya by dividing it into three regions according to ethnicities.

Discovery of vast fluvial deposits provides evidence for drawdown during the late Miocene Messinian salinity crisis

The late Miocene Messinian salinity crisis (MSC) was a significant oceanographic event that caused widespread evaporitic accumulation throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Although multiple hypotheses exist regarding the origin of evaporitic and post-evaporitic deposits, researchers remain divided on the magnitude of base-level fall, and on whether these accumulations record deep-water or non-marine conditions. Here, we introduce a previously unknown, upper Messinian fluvial deposit comparable in size to the late Miocene Nile River fluvial valley fill and show that near-complete desiccation of the eastern Mediterranean was responsible for its development. The basin-wide accumulation, which is located offshore Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, lies directly atop deep-basin evaporites and related erosional surfaces, and is one of the largest known riverine deposits associated with the terminal MSC. From marked onshore incision and basinward thinning trends, the source of the accumulation is presumed to be a formerly unidentified drainage basin in southern Turkey and western Syria; the deposit extends > 500 km into the western Levant Basin, where its depositional sink is marked by six well-developed backstepping lobes. Based on the deposit's seismic stratigraphy and morphology, which provide clear evidence of subaerial exposure, we question current hypotheses proposing a deepwater origin for late Messinian accumulations. We also draw specific attention to the development of extensive circum-Mediterranean nonmarine conditions prior to Zanclean marine transgression, and to the previously overlooked role of fluvial systems in diluting hypersaline lakes in evaporitic basins.

Interaction of a Spreading Mantle Plume Head and the Ancient Lithosphere: Studying Mantle Xenoliths in Basalts and Lamprophyre Diatremes of Western Syria

Abstract —Our study of mantle xenoliths in the Cretaceous lamprophyre diatremes and late Cenozoic plateau basalts of western Syria has shown that the ancient lower crust that existed in the Cretaceous and was composed of garnet granulites and eclogite-like rocks was replaced by mantle peridotites in the late Cenozoic. We conclude that the heads of the local (secondary) plumes of the present-day Afro-Arabian thermochemical mantle plume responsible for the regional basaltic magmatism reached the basement of the ancient upper sialic crust, where they spread, leading to a displacement of the mafic lower crust.